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Research Methods Flashcards

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0
Q

Scientific method

A

A five-step process for empirical investigation of a hypothesis under conditions designed to control biases and subjective judgements.

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1
Q

How do psychologists develop new knowledge?

A

Psychologists, like researchers in all other sciences, use the scientific method to test their ideas empirically.

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2
Q

Empirical investigation

A

An approach to research that relies on sensory experience and observation as research data.

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3
Q

Theory

A

A testable explanation for a set of facts or observations. In science, a theory is not just a speculation or a guess.

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4
Q

Hypothesis

A

A statement predicting the outcome of a scientific study; a statement describing the relationship among variables in a study.

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5
Q

Operational definitions

A

Specific descriptions of concepts involving the conditions of a specific study. Operational definitions are stated in terms of how the concepts are to be measured or what operations are being employed to produce them.

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6
Q

Independent variable (IV)

A

A stimulus condition so named because the experimenter changes it independently of all the other carefully controlled experimental conditions.

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7
Q

Random presentation

A

A process by which chance alone determines the order in which the stimulus is presented.

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8
Q

Data

A

Pieces of information, especially information gathered by a researcher to be used in testing a hypothesis. (Singular: datum)

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9
Q

Dependent variable (DV)

A

The measured outcome of a study; the responses of the subjects in a study.

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10
Q

Replicate

A

In research, this refers to doing a study over to see whether the same results are obtained. As a control for bias, replication is often done by someone other than the researcher who performed the original study.

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11
Q

Step ① of scientific method

A

Developing a hypothesis

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12
Q

Step ② of scientific method

A

Performing a controlled test

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13
Q

Step ③ of scientific method

A

Gathering objective data

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14
Q

Step ④ of scientific method

A

Analyzing the results

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15
Q

Step ⑤ of scientific method

A

Publishing, criticizing, and replicating the results

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16
Q

Experiment

A

A kind of research in which the researcher controls all the conditions and directly manipulates the conditions, including the independent variable.

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17
Q

Confounding or extraneous variables

A

Variables that have an unwanted influence on the outcome of an experiment.

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18
Q

Controls

A

Constraints that the experimenter places on the experiment to ensure that each subject has the exact same conditions.

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19
Q

Random assignment

A

Each subject of the sample has an equal likelihood of being chosen for the experimental group of an experiment.

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20
Q

Ex post facto

A

Research in which we choose subjects based on a pre-existing condition

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21
Q

Correlational study

A

A type of research that is mainly statistical in nature. Correlational studies determine the relationship (or correlation) between two variables.

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22
Q

Survey

A

A quasi-experimental method in which questions are asked to subjects. When designing a survey, the researcher has to be careful that the questions are not skewed or biased towards a particular answer.

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23
Q

Naturalistic observation

A

A research method in which subjects are observed in their natural environment.

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24
Q

Longitudinal study

A

A type of study in which one group of subjects is followed and observed (or examined, surveyed, etc.) for an extended period of time (years).

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25
Q

Cross-sectional study

A

A study in which a representative cross section of the population is tested or surveyed at one specific time.

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26
Q

Cohort-sequential study

A

A research method in which a cross section of the population is chosen and then each cohort is followed for a short period of time.

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27
Q

Personal bias

A

The researcher allowing personal beliefs to affect the outcome of a study.

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28
Q

Expectancy bias

A

The researcher allowing his or her expectations to affect the outcome of a study.

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29
Q

Double-blind study

A

An experimental procedure in which both researchers and participants are uninformed about the nature of the independent variable being administered.

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30
Q

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A

A committee at each institution where research is conducted to review every experiment for ethics and methodology.

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31
Q

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

A

A committee at each institution where research is conducted to review every experiment involving animals for ethics and methodology.

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32
Q

What are the APA’s guidelines on deception?

A

Under most circumstances, participation in research should be voluntary and informed.

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33
Q

What are the exceptions to the APA’s deception guidelines?

A

If deception is necessary for the purpose of the experiment, no substantial risks can be likely. The participants must be informed as soon as possible of the deception and must be debriefed to avoid any ill effects.

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34
Q

What are the APA’s guidelines on animal research?

A

Researchers must provide decent living conditions for animal subjects and weigh any discomfort caused them against the value of the information sought.

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35
Q

ABCs of laboratory animal research

A

Appropriate, beneficial, caring

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37
Q

How do we make sense of the data?

A

Researchers use statistics for two major purposes: (1) descriptively to characterize measurements made on groups or individuals and (2) inferentially to judge whether those measurements are the result of chance.

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38
Q

Frequency distribution

A

A summary chart, showing how frequently each of the various scores in a set of data occurs

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39
Q

Histogram

A

A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution. The height of the bars indicates the frequency of a group of scores.

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40
Q

Descriptive statistics

A

Statistical procedures used to describe characteristics and responses of groups of subjects.

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41
Q

Mean

A

The measure of central tendency most often used to describe a set of data- calculated by adding all the scores and dividing by the number of scores

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42
Q

Median

A

A measure of central tendency for a distribution, represented by the score that separates the upper half of the scores in a distribution from the lower half.

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43
Q

Mode

A

A measure of central tendency for a distribution, represented by the score that occurs more often than any other.

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44
Q

Range

A

The simplest measure of variability, represented by the difference between the highest and the lowest values in a frequency distribution

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45
Q

Standard deviation (SD)

A

A measure of variability that indicates the average difference between the scores and their mean.

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46
Q

Normal distribution

A

A bell-shaped curve, describing the spread of a characteristic throughout a population

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47
Q

Correlation

A

A relationship between variables, in which changes in one variable are reflected in changes in the other variable- as in the correlation between a child’s age and height

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48
Q

Correlation coefficient

A

A number between -1 and +1 expressing the degree of relationship between two variables

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49
Q

Inferential statistics

A

Statistical techniques (based on probability theory) used to assess whether the results of a study are reliable or whether they might simply be the result of chance. Inferential statistics are often used to determine whether two or more groups are essentially the same or different

50
Q

Random sample

A

A sample group of subjects selected by chance (without biased selection techniques)

51
Q

Representative sample

A

A sample obtained in such a way that it reflects the distribution of of important variables in the larger population in which the researchers are interested - variables such as age, income level, ethnicity, and geographic distribution

52
Q

Significant difference

A

Psychologists accept a difference between the groups as “real”, or significant, when the probability that it might be due to an atypical sample drawn by chance is less than 5 in 100 (indicated by the notation p<.05)

53
Q

Method which establishes cause and effect

A

Experiment

54
Q

Why would someone do a case study instead of another method?

A

Reproducing the situation would be unethical

55
Q

Strengths of experiments

A

Manipulation of variables to control outside influences; best method for identifying causal relationships

56
Q

Weaknesses of experiments

A

Artificial; limited generalizability; manipulation of some variables is unethical, impractical

57
Q

Strengths of questionnaires

A

Effective means of measuring actions, attitudes, opinions, preferences, and intentions of large numbers of people

58
Q

Weaknesses of questionnaires

A

Lack of explanatory power; validity determined by sample; reliability difficult to determine; self-report may be inaccurate, biased

59
Q

Strengths of interviews

A

Allows a wide range of responses; follow-up questions possible

60
Q

Weaknesses of interviews

A

Does not enable researchers to draw conclusions about causal relationships; time-consuming

61
Q

Strengths of naturalistic observation

A

Behavior is unaffected by manipulations

62
Q

Weaknesses of naturalistic observation

A

Little opportunity to control variables; time-consuming

63
Q

Strengths of case studies

A

Extensive evidence is gathered on single person

64
Q

Weaknesses of case studies

A

Lack of generalizability; time-consuming

65
Q

Archival research

A

Examines records to confirm correlational hypothesis

66
Q

Repeated measures

A

Using same subjects in each condition of experiment

67
Q

Strengths of repeated measures design

A
  • Subject variables kept constant
  • better statistical tests can be used
  • fewer subjects required
68
Q

Weaknesses of repeated measures design

A

Order effects
Demand characteristics
Different tests needed

69
Q

Independent measures

A

Using different subjects in each condition of the experiment

70
Q

Strengths of independent measures design

A
  • Order effects do not influence second condition
  • demand characteristics less of a problem
  • same test can be used
71
Q

Weaknesses of independent measures design

A
  • subject variables differ
  • worse statistical tests can be used
  • more subjects required
72
Q

Matched pairs

A

Using different but similar subjects in each condition of an experiment. And effort is made to match the subjects in each condition in any important characteristics that might affect performance

73
Q

Strengths of matched pairs design

A
  • subject variables kept more constant
  • better statistical tests can be used
  • order effects do not occur
  • demand characteristics are less of a problem
  • same test can be used
74
Q

Weaknesses of matched pairs design

A
  • subject variables can never be perfectly matched in every respect
  • time consuming, difficult
  • more subjects required
75
Q

Sampling

A

Process of selecting subjects to study from the target population

  • should be as representative as possible
  • should be of a sufficient size to represent variety, but not uneconomically large
76
Q

Strengths of random sampling

A

Provides the best chance of an unbiased representative sample

77
Q

Weaknesses of random sampling

A

Difficult

78
Q

Stratified sampling

A

Dividing target population into subcategories and selecting members of these categories in target proportions

79
Q

Strengths of stratified sampling

A

Deliberate effort is made to identify the most important characteristics of a sample

80
Q

Weaknesses of stratified sampling

A

Time-consuming

81
Q

Opportunity sampling

A

Selecting available subjects

82
Q

Strengths of opportunity sampling

A

Quick, convenient, economical

83
Q

Weaknesses of opportunity sampling

A

Unrepresentative, researcher bias

84
Q

Self-selecting sampling

A

Individuals who have consciously or unconsciously determined own involvement in study

85
Q

Strengths of self-selecting sampling

A

Convenient, ethical

86
Q

Weaknesses of self-selecting sampling

A

Unrepresentative, subject bias

87
Q

What are the extraneous variables related to experimental subjects?

A

Individual differences

88
Q

How do you control for individual differences?

A
  • large, random sample

- random assignment

89
Q

What are problems related to experimental method?

A

Artificiality

90
Q

How do you control for artificiality?

A
  • field study instead of laboratory

- increase number of definitions (broaden) operationalized variable

91
Q

What are problems related to experimental design?

A

Order effects, demand characteristics, experimenter expectancy

92
Q

How do you control for order effects?

A
  • use independent measures design

- counterbalance (half perform A before B, half perform B before A)

93
Q

How do you control for demand characteristics?

A
  • use independent measures design
  • use deception to hide research aim
  • use single-blind method (they don’t know which condition they’re in)
94
Q

How do you control for experimenter expectancy?

A

-double-blind method (neither subject nor researcher knows hypothesis/condition)
-inter-observer reliability measures
(Another observer simultaneously but separately rates same piece of behavior)

95
Q

What are problems with experimental procedures?

A

Distraction and confusion

96
Q

How do you control for distraction and confusion?

A
  • clear, simple, standardized instructions

- subject should be asked for questions

97
Q

General process of correlation all research vs experimental research

A

Correlational: researcher observes a previously existing situation; makes no changes
Experimental: researcher manipulates a situation in order to observe the outcome

98
Q

Intended result of correlational research vs. experimental research

A

Correlational: identifies associations between factors
Experimental: learns how changes in one variable cause changes in another variable

99
Q

What are the 6 key ethical issues?

A
  • informed consent/debriefing
  • right to withdraw
  • deception
  • protection from harm
  • confidentiality
  • privacy
100
Q

How do you address informed consent and debriefing?

A
  • participants formally agree to take part after being given comprehensive information about the nature and purpose of study & their role
  • afterwards, the true nature is revealed & participant is reminded of rights
101
Q

How do you address the right to withdraw?

A

Remind before, during, and after the study.

102
Q

How do address deception ethically?

A

-justify the deception with an ethics review board

103
Q

How do you address protection from harm?

A

-studies should be designed so that participants come to no more harm than they would in their day to day lives

104
Q

How do you address confidentiality?

A

-researchers should use fake names or numbers instead of participant names

105
Q

How do you address privacy?

A

-potential subjects’ privacy should be respected

106
Q

When are informed consent/debriefing unnecessary?

A

During covert observation

107
Q

Hindsight bias

A

Tendency upon hearing something to think one knew it all along

108
Q

When is research valid?

A

When it measures what the researcher set out to measure; accurate

109
Q

When is research reliable?

A

Can be replicated; consistent

110
Q

Response/ subject bias

A

Tendency for subjects to behave in certain ways (picking left instead of right, etc)

111
Q

Social desirability

A

Response bias; tendency to try to give answers that reflect well upon them

112
Q

Hawthorne effect

A

Selecting a group of people on whom to experiment affects the performance of that group

113
Q

Positively skewed distribution

A

Extreme score that is very high; more low than high scores; mean>median

114
Q

Negatively skewed distribution

A

Extreme score that is very low; more high than low scores; mean<median

115
Q

Z scores

A

Measure the distance of a score from the mean in units of standard deviation

116
Q

What percent of scores in a normal distribution fall within one standard deviation of the mean?

A

68%

117
Q

What percent of scores in a normal distribution fall within two standard deviations of the mean?

A

95%

118
Q

What percent of scores in a normal distribution fall within three standard deviations of the mean?

A

99%

119
Q

Percentile

A

The distance of a score from 0

-someone who scores in the 90th percentile has scored better than 90% of people

120
Q

Sampling error

A

Extent to which a sample differs from the population

Psychology (11 decks)

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