Biopsychology and Neuroscience Flashcards
Neuroscience
A relatively new interdisciplinary field that focuses on the brain and its role in psychological processes
Biopsychology
The specialty in psychology that studies the interaction of biology, behavior, and mental processes
How are genes and behavior linked?
Evolution has fundamentally shaped psychological processes because it favors genetic variations that produce adaptive behavior.
Evolution
The gradual process of biological change that occurs in a species as it adapts to its environment
Natural selection
The driving force behind evolution, by which the environment “selects” the fittest organisms
Genotype
An organism’s genetic makeup
Phenotype
An organism’s observable physical characteristics
DNA
A long, complex molecule that encodes genetic characteristics. DNA is an abbreviation for deoxyribonucleic acid
Gene
Segment of a chromosome that encodes the directions for the inherited physical and mental characteristics of an organism. Genes are the functional units of a chromosome
Chromosome
Tightly coiled threadlike structure along which the genes are organized, like beads on a necklace. Chromosomes consist primarily of DNA
Sex chromosomes
The X and Y chromosomes that determine our physical sex characteristics
Monozygotic twins
Identical twins. Studied in order to examine influence of genes on human traits.
Sensory neuron
Nerve cell that carries messages from sense receptors toward the central nervous system. Also called an afferent neuron.
Neuron
Cell specialized to receive and transmit information to other cells in the body- also called a nerve cell. Bundles of many neurons are called nerves
How does the body communicate internally?
The brain coordinates the body’s two communications systems, the nervous system and the endocrine system, which use similar chemical processes to communicate with targets throughout the body.
Interneuron
A nerve cell that relays messages between nerve cells, especially in the brain and spinal cord
Neuronatomy
the study of the parts and functions of neurons
Motor neuron
Nerve cell that carries messages away from the central nervous system toward the muscles and glands. Also called an efferent neuron.
Soma
The part of a cell (such as a neuron) containing the nucleus, which includes the chromosomes, and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life. Also called the cell body.
Resting potential
The electrical charge of the axon in its inactive state, when the neuron is ready to “fire”
Dendrite
A branched fiber that extends outward from the main cell body and carries information into the neuron. Grows to make synaptic connections with other neurons.
Axon
In a nerve cell, an extended fiber that conducts information from the soma to the terminal buttons. Information travels along the axon in the form of an electric charge called the action potential.
All-or-none principle
Refers to the fact that the action potential in the axon occurs either full-blown or not at all
Threshold
the level of neurotransmitter messages needed to cause a neuron to fire
Myelin sheath
fatty covering surrounding the axon of some neurons that speeds neural impulses
Action potential
The nerve impulse caused by a change in the electrical charge across the cell membrane of the axon. When the neuron “fires”, this charge travels down the axon and causes neurotransmitters to be released by the terminal buttons
Neural firing
an electrochemical process. electricity travels within the cell (from the dendrites to the terminal buttons), and chemicals (neurotransmitters) travel between cells in the synapse.
Terminal buttons
Tiny bulb like structures at the end of the axon, which contain neurotransmitters that carry the neuron’s message into the synapse
Synapse
The microscopic gap that serves as a communications link between neurons. Synapses also occur between neurons and the muscles or glands they serve
Synaptic transmission
The relaying of information across the synapse by means of chemical neurotransmitters
Receptor sites
places on the dendrites where neurotransmitters fit and stimulate the neuron
Synaptic vesicle
A small “container” holding neurotransmitter molecules that then connects to the presynaptic membrane, releasing the neurotransmitter into the synapse
Function of dopamine
Produces sensations of pleasure and reward
Used by CNS neurons involved in voluntary movement
Excitatory neurotransmitters
excite the next cell into firing
Inhibitory neurotransmitters
inhibit the next cell from firing
Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers contained in terminal buttons that relay neural messages across the synapse. Many neurotransmitters are also hormones. Neurotransmitters fit into receptor sites on the dendrites of a neuron like a key fits into a lock.
Function of seratonin
Regulates sleep and dreaming, mood, pain, aggression, appetite, and sexual behavior
Problems associated with imbalance of seratonin
Depression, certain anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder
Problems associated with imbalance of dopamine
Schizophrenia
Parkinson’s disease
Problems associated with imbalance of norepinephrine
High blood pressure, depression
Function of acetylcholine
The primary neurotransmitter used by efferent neurons carrying messages from the CNS
Also involved in some kinds of learning and memory
Function of norepinephrine
Used by neurons in autonomic nervous system and by neurons in almost every region of the brain
Controls heart rate, sleep, stress, sexual responsiveness, vigilance, and appetite
Function of GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid)
The most prevalent inhibitory neurotransmitter in neurons of the CNS
Problems associated with imbalance of GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid)
Anxiety, epilepsy
Problems associated with imbalance of acetylcholine
Certain muscular disorders, Alzheimer’s disease
Problems associated with imbalance of glutamate
Release of excessive glutamate apparently causes brain damage after stroke
Function of endorphins
Pleasurable sensations and control of pain
Function of glutamate
The primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS
Involved in learning and memory
Plasticity
The nervous system’s ability to adapt or change as the result of experience. Plasticity may also help the nervous system adapt to physical change. Younger children’s brains are more plastic.
Glial cells
Cells that bind the neurons together. Glial cells also provide an insulating covering (the myelin sheath) of the axon for some neurons, which facilitates the electrical impulse
Problems associated with imbalance of endorphins
Lowered levels resulting from opiate addiction
Central nervous system
The brain and the spinal cord
Spinal cord
bundle of nerves that run through the center of the spine. transmits information from the rest of the body to the brain.
Nervous system
The entire network of neurons in the body, including the central nervous system, the peripheral nervous system, and their subdivisions
Peripheral nervous system
All parts of the nervous system lying outside the central nervous system. The peripheral nervous system includes the autonomic and somatic nervous systems
Somatic nervous system
A division of the peripheral nervous system that carries sensory information to the central nervous system and also sends voluntary messages to the body’s skeletal muscles
Reflex
A simple, unlearned response triggered by stimuli – such as the knee-jerk reflex set off by tapping the tendon just below your kneecap
Sympathetic division
The part of the autonomic nervous system that sends messages to internal organs and glands that help us respond to stressful and emergency situations. accelerates heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration, but conserves resources by slowing down digestion, etc.
Endocrine system
The hormone system– the body’s chemical messenger system, including the endocrine glands: pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries, and testes. Secretes hormones that affect many biological processes in the body. Controlled by the hypothalamus.
Autonomic nervous system
The portion of the peripheral nervous system that sends communications between the central nervous system and the internal organs and glands. controls autonomic functions of our body. controls our response to stress.
Parasympathetic division
The part of the autonomic nervous system that monitors the routine operations of the internal organs and returns the body to calmer functioning after arousal by the sympathetic division.
Anterior pituitary produces hormones that regulate…
Ovaries and testes
Breast milk production
Metabolism
Reactions to stress
Posterior pituitary produces hormones that regulate…
Conservation of water in the body
Breast milk secretion
Uterus contractions
Hormone
A chemical messenger used by the endocrine system. Many hormones also serve as neurotransmitters.
Parathyroid produces hormones that regulate…
Calcium levels in the body
Pancreas produces hormones that regulate…
Glucose metabolism
Thyroid produces hormones that regulate…
Metabolism
Physical growth and development
Adrenal glands
Produce adrenaline, which signals the body to prepare for fight or flight. Connected to autonomic sympathetic nervous system.
Ovaries produce hormones that regulate …
Development of female sexual characteristics
Production of ova
Testes produce hormones that regulate…
Development of male sexual characteristics Sperm production Sexual desire (in men)
Adrenal glands produce hormones that regulate…
Fight-or-flight response
Metabolism
Sexual desire (especially in women)
Agonist
Drug or other chemical that enhances or mimics the effects of neurotransmitters
Antagonist
Drug or other chemical that inhibits the effects of neurotransmitters
Pituitary gland
The “master gland” that produces hormones influencing the secretions of all other endocrine glands, as well as a hormone that influences growth. The pituitary is attached to the brain’s hypothalamus, from which it takes its orders
How does the brain produce behavior and mental processes?
The brain is composed of many specialized modules that work together to create mind and behavior.
Accidents
a way of studying brain function.
ex) 1848 Phineas Gage damaging the front part of his brain –> doctor took notes documenting brain damage and how behavior and personality changed after the accident
Neural pathway
Bundle of nerve cells that follow generally the same route and employ the same neurotransmitter
PET scanning or positron emission tomography
An imaging technique that relies on the detection of radio-active sugar consumed by active brain cells. Shows what areas of the brain are most active during certain tasks.
CT scanning or computerized tomography
A computerized imaging technique that uses X-rays passed through the brain at various angles and then combined into an image. Shows structure only, not function or activity.
Lesions
removal or destruction of part of the brain. sometimes is the best treatment or a certain condition. doctors closely monitor the patient’s subsequent behavior for changes and try to infer the function of that part of the brain.
Electroencephalograph or EEG
A device for recording brain waves, typically by electrodes placed on the scalp. The record produced is known as an electroencephalogram (also called an EEG).
fMRI or functional magnetic resonance imaging
A type of MRI that reveals which parts of the brain are most active during various mental activities. Shows details of brain structure with information about blood flow in the brain.
MEG or magnetoencephalography
A technique for timing nerve cell activity, using magnetic detection coils chilled to superconducting temperatures, creating a magnetic field in a highly sensitive instrument called SQUID
MRI or magnetic resonance imaging
An imaging technique that relies on cells’ responses in a high-intensity magnetic field. Measures density and location of brain material. Patient is not exposed to radiation.
Medulla
A brain-stem structure that controls breathing and heart rate. The sensory and motor pathways connecting the brain to the body cross in the medulla. Located above the spinal cord.
Pons
A brain-stem structure that regulates brain activity during sleep and dreaming. It also controls facial expressions. The name pons derives from the Latin word for “bridge” because it connects the hindbrain to the rest of the brain. Located just above the medulla and towards the front.
Hindbrain
“Old brain”. Consists of structures in the top part of the spinal cord. Life support system. Contains medulla, pons, and cerebellum.
Brain stem
The most primitive of the brain’s three major layers. It includes the medulla, pons, and reticular formation.
Cerebellum
The “little brain” attached to the brain stem. The cerebellum is responsible for coordinated movements.
Forebrain
“New brain”. Controls thought and reason. Large in comparison to other areas. Contains thalamus, hypothalamus, Amygdala, and hippocampus.
Thalamus
The brain’s central “relay station” situated just atop the brain stem. Nearly all the messages going into or out of the brain go through the thalamus.
Midbrain
“Old brain”. Located just above the spinal cord but below the forebrain. Coordinates simple movements with sensory information. Contains reticular formation.
Reticular formation
A pencil-shaped structure forming the core of the brain stem. The reticular formation arouses the cortex to keep the brain alert and attentive to new stimulation.
Hippocampus
A component of the limbic system, involved in establishing long-term memories
Amygdala
A limbic system structure near the end of each hippocampal arm involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression. Memories are processed through this area and stored elsewhere. Pronounced a-MIG-da-la
Limbic system
The middle layer of the brain, involved in emotion and memory. The limbic system includes the hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, and other structures
Cerebral cortex
The thin grey-matter covering of the cerebral hemispheres, consisting of a 1/4-inch layer dense with cell bodies of neurons. It is wrinkled to increase surface area. The cerebral cortex carries on the major portion of our “higher” mental processing, including thinking and perceiving.
Lobes
Collection of 8 different areas in the cerebral cortex. Frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital in each hemisphere.
Hypothalamus
A limbic structure that serves as the brain’s blood-testing laboratory, constantly monitoring the blood to determine the condition of the body. Controls metabolic functions, including body temperature, libido, hunger, thirst, and the endocrine system. Controls biological rhythms. Right next to the thalamus.
Broca’s Area
In the frontal lobe. Responsible for the muscles involved in producing speech. Is in the left hemisphere for most people.
Motor cortex
A narrow vertical strip of cortex in the back of the frontal lobes, lying just in front of the central fissure; controls voluntary movement. The top of the cortex controls the feet and toes, the bottom controls the top of the body.
Parietal lobes
Cortical areas lying toward the back and top of the brain; involved in touch sensation and in perceiving spatial relationships (the relationships of objects in space)
Frontal lobes
Cortical regions at the front of the brain that are especially involved in movement and in thinking. In front is the prefrontal cortex, which directs thought processes.
Occipital lobes
The cortical regions at the back of the brain, housing the visual cortex. Interpret messages from the eyes.
Visual cortex
The visual processing areas of cortex in the occipital and temporal lobes
Somatosensory cortex
A strip of the parietal lobe lying just behind the central fissure. The somatosensory cortex is involved with sensations of touch. Receives incoming touch sensations from the rest of the body. Top receives sensations from bottom of body, bottom receives signals from face and head.
Association cortex
Cortical regions throughout the brain that combine information from various other parts of the brain. Not associated with receiving sensory information or controlling muscle movements. Thought to be responsible for sophisticated thoughts like judgement and humor.
Temporal lobes
Cortical lobes that process sounds, including speech. NOT lateralized: All sounds are processed by each ear. The temporal lobes are probably involved in storing long-term memories
Wernicke’s area
Second special area involved in language processing. Located in the temporal lobe. Interprets both written and spoken speech. Damage would affect ability to understand language. Speech would lack proper syntax and grammatical structure but sound fluent.
Hemispheres
Two divisions of the cerebral cortex: left and right. Look alike, but have different functions.
Left hemisphere
Gets sensory messages and controls the motor function of the right half of the body.
More active during logic and sequential tasks.
Cerebral dominance
The tendency of each brain hemisphere to exert control over certain functions, such as language or perception of spatial relationships
Brain lateralization (or hemispheric specialization)
Specialization of function in each hemisphere
Specialization of right hemisphere
Regulation of negative emotions Responses to simple commands Memory for shapes and music Interpreting spatial relationships and visual images Recognition of faces
Right hemisphere
Gets sensory messages and controls the motor function of the left half of the body.
Specialization of left hemisphere
Regulation of positive emotions Control of muscles used in speech Control of sequence of movements Spontaneous speaking and writing Memory for words and numbers Understanding speech and writing
Michael Gazzaniga
1939-
Pioneered split-brain surgery
Corpus callosum
The band of nerve cells that connect the two cerebral hemispheres
Roger Sperry
1913-1994
Pioneered split-brain surgery
Paul Broca
1824-1880
Discovered special lateralized function of Broca’s area
Carl Wernicke
1848-1905
Discovered the special lateralized function of Wernicke’s area
Thomas Bouchard
Identical twin study on relative influences of genetics and environment on specific traits. Found IQ between twins in different families to be highly correlated. However, correlation might be explained by them looking alike and thus having the same effective psychological environment.
