Learning Flashcards
Habituation
Learning not to respond to the repeated presentation of a stimulus
Learning
A lasting change in behavior or mental processes that results from experience
Mere exposure effect
A learned preference for stimuli to which we have been previously exposed
Behavioral learning
Forms of learning, such as classical conditioning and operant conditioning, that can be described in terms of stimuli and responses
What sort of learning does classical conditioning explain?
Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning in which a stimulus that produces an innate reflex becomes associated with a previously neutral stimulus, which then acquires the power to elicit essentially the same response.
Classical conditioning
A form of behavioral learning in which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the power to elicit the same innate reflex produced by another stimulus.
Neutral stimulus
Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning. When it is brought into a conditioning experiment, the researcher will call it a conditioned stimulus (CS). The assumption is that some conditioning occurs after even one pairing of the CS and UCS.
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
In classical conditioning, the stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response
Unconditioned response (UCR)
In classical conditioning, the response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning.
Acquisition
The initial learning stage in classical conditioning, during which the conditioned response comes to be elicited by the conditioned stimulus.
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
In classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned response. Customarily, in a conditioning experiment, the neutral stimulus is called a conditioned stimulus when it is first paired unconditioned stimulus (UCS).
Conditioned response (CR)
In classical conditioning, a response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
Extinction (in classical conditioning)
The weakening of a conditioned response in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus.
Spontaneous recovery
The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay
Stimulus generalization
The extension of a learned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.
Stimulus discrimination
A change in responses to one stimulus but not to stimuli that are similar
Experimental neurosis
A pattern of erratic behavior resulting from a demanding discrimination learning task, typically one that involves aversive stimuli.
Taste-aversion learning
A biological tendency in which an organism learns, after a single experience, to avoid a food with a certain taste, if eating it is followed by illness.
How do we learn new behaviors by operant conditioning?
In operant conditioning, the consequences of behavior, such as rewards and punishments, influence the chance behavior will occur again.
Operant
An observable, voluntary behavior that an organism emits to “operate” on, or have an effect on, the environment.
Operant conditioning
A form of behavioral learning in which the probability of a response is changed by its consequences–that is, by the stimuli that follow the response.
Law of effect
The idea that responses that produced desirable results would be learned, or “stamped” into the organism.
Reinforcer
A condition (involving either the presentation or removal of a stimulus) that occurs after a response and strengthens that response.
Positive reinforcement
A stimulus presented after a response and increasing the probability of that response happening again.
Negative reinforcement
The removal of an unpleasant or aversive stimulus, contingent on a particular behavior. Compare with punishment.
Operant chamber
A boxlike apparatus that can be programmed to deliver reinforcers and punishers contingent on an animal’s behavior. The operant chamber is often called a “Skinner box”.
Reinforcement contingencies
Relationships between a response and the changes in stimulation that follow the response.
Continuous reinforcement
A type of reinforcement schedule by which all correct responses are reinforced.
Shaping
An operant learning technique in which a new behavior is produced by reinforcing responses that are similar to the desired response.
Intermittent reinforcement
A type of reinforcement schedule by which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced; also called partial reinforcement.
Extinction (in operant conditioning)
A process by which a response that has been learned is weakened by the absence or removal of reinforcement. (Compare with extinction in classical conditioning.)
Schedules of reinforcement
Programs specifying the frequency and timing of reinforcements.
Ratio schedule
A program by which reinforcement depends on the number of correct responses.
Interval schedule
A program by which reinforcement depends on the time interval elapsed since the last reinforcement.
Fixed ratio (FR) schedules
Programs by which reinforcement is contingent on a certain, unvarying number of responses.
Variable ratio (VR) schedules
Reinforcement programs by which the number of responses required for a reinforcement varies from trial to trial.
Fixed interval (FI) schedules
Programs by which reinforcement is contingent on a certain, fixed time period.
Variable interval (VI) schedules
Programs by which the time period between reinforcements varies from trial to trial.
Primary reinforcers
Reinforcers, such as food and sex, that have an innate basis because of their biological value to an organism.
Conditioned reinforcers or secondary reinforcers
Stimuli, such as money or tokens, that acquire their reinforcing power by a learned association with primary reinforcers.
Token economy
A therapeutic method, based on operant conditioning, by which individuals are rewarded with tokens, which act as secondary reinforcers. The tokens can be redeemed for a variety of rewards and privileges.
Premack principle
The concept, developed by David Premack, that a more-preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity.
Punishment
An aversive stimulus which, occurring after a response, diminishes the strength of that response. (Compare with negative reinforcement.)
Positive punishment
The application of an aversive stimulus after a response.
Omission training (negative punishment)
The removal of an appetitive stimulus after a response, leading to a decrease in behavior.
What presents a positive stimulus?
Positive reinforcement
Increases behavior
What removes a positive stimulus?
Omission training
Negative punishment
Decreases behavior
What presents a negative stimulus?
Punishment
Decreases behavior
What removes a negative stimulus?
Negative reinforcement
Increases behavior
4 reasons punishment rarely works
- Doesn’t work when threat of punishment is removed.
- Punishment triggers escape or aggression.
- Punishment makes the learner apprehensive, which inhibits learning better responses.
- Punishment is often applied unequally.
4 main techniques for modifying operant behavior
Positive reinforcement, punishment, negative reinforcement, extinction
How does cognitive psychology explain learning?
According to cognitive psychology, some forms of learning must be explained as changes in mental processes, rather than as changes in behavior alone.
Insight learning
A form of cognitive learning, originally described by the Gestalt psychologists, in which problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions.
Cognitive map
A mental representation of physical space.
Observational learning
A form of cognitive learning in which new responses are required after watching others’ behavior and the consequences of their behavior.
Long-term potentiation
A biological process, involving physical changes that strengthen the synapses in groups of nerve cells, which is believed to be the neural basis of learning.
How does cognitive psychology explain learning?
According to cognitive psychology, some forms of learning must be explained as changes in mental processes, rather than as changes in behavior alone.
Insight learning
A form of cognitive learning, originally described by the Gestalt psychologists, in which problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions.
Cognitive map
A mental representation of physical space.
Observational learning
A form of cognitive learning in which new responses are required after watching others’ behavior and the consequences of their behavior.
Long-term potentiation
A biological process, involving physical changes that strengthen the synapses in groups of nerve cells, which is believed to be the neural basis of learning.
Delay conditioning
CS presented before UCS, but the two overlap
Trace conditioning
CS presented before UCS with no overlap
Simultaneous conditioning
CS presented at same time as UCS
Backward conditioning
UCS presented before CS
Most effective timing (CC) to least effective
Delayed
Trace
Simultaneous
Backward
Requirements for acquisition
Contingency -reliably predictable
Contiguous -well timed
Blocking -focus on most intense stimuli
NS must be informative
Fear conditioning
Classical conditioning with UCS being fear-provoking
- resistant to extinction
- can occur after only one pairing
Ivan Pavlov
Physiologist
Classical conditioning
John Watson
Pioneered behaviorism
Conducted Baby Albert experiment
Edward Thorndike
Puzzle box (with cats)
Learning by trial and error
The Law of Effect
B. F. Skinner
- Changes in behavior are result of either reinforcement or punishment
- radical: all behavior is product of environmental events
- operant chamber
Edward Tolman
Latent learning
Cognitive maps with rat mazes
Albert Bandura
BoBo dolls and learned aggression
Combined behavioral and cognitive philosophies –> modeling
Wolfgang Köhler
Insight learning
Sultan the chimp getting banana with boxes and sticks
Konrad Lorenz
Studied imprinting with geese
Imprinting
Social bonding in infant animals
Occurs during critical period right after hatching
Key factors in observational learning
Attention
Retention
Production processes
Motivation *
Biological influences on learning
Biological preparedness
Imprinting
Taste aversion
Autonomic conditioning
