Research Methods Flashcards
What is qualitative data
Information in words or pictures; non numerical
Qualitative data - pros
+ represents true complexity of human behaviour, thoughts and behaviour is not reduced to numbers — a holistic approach
+ provides rich details of how people think and behave — higher in validity as the researcher is more likely to measure the variable of interest
Qualitative data - cons
- more difficult to detect patterns and draw conclusions, large variety of information collected, words can’t be reduced to simple points
- interpreting what people mean makes it likely to be subjective, lowering credibility
What is quantitative data
Information in numbers, i.e. quantities
Quantitative data - pros
+ easier to analyse, data in numbers, using descriptive statistics or inferential statistics
+ more objective measure, more reliable, gives greater credibility
Quantitative data - cons
- May not express participants’ precise thoughts/ feelings because answers provided are fixed — low in validity
- oversimplifies reality and human experience — reductionist is to reduce human experience to numbers
What is primary data
First hand data collected for the purpose of the investigation
What is secondary data
Information collected by someone other than the researcher (e.g. books, journals, etc.)
What is random sample
A randomly collected sample
Random sample - pros
+ unbiased, all members of target population have an equal chance of selection
+ possible to choose a specific subgroup in target population
Random sample - cons
- takes more time and effort (obtaining a list of all target members, identifying them, asking consent)
- random samples aren’t always random as some might not take part, final may resemble more of a volunteer sample
What is stratified sample
Selected from different stratas (subgroups) in proportion to the population
Stratified sample - pro
+ most representative, all subgroups represented and in proportion to the numbers in the target population
+ specific subgroups can be chosen according to the variables considered to be important by the researcher
Stratified sample - cons
- deciding the subgroups may be biased
- a very lengthy process and those selected might not take part — more useful for opinion polls than psychological research
What is a volunteer sample
Participants who can volunteer to take part
Volunteer sample - pro
+ convenient way to find willing participants (gave informed consent)
+ good way to get a specialised group of participants (purposive sampling)
Volunteer sample - cons
- biased since volunteer participants are more likely to be more highly motivated (volunteer bias)
- volunteers may be more helpful, higher chance in guessing the aims
What is opportunity sample
Those most readily available during the study
Opportunity sample - pros
+ most convenient technique — takes little preparation
+ may be the only technique available since target population cannot be listed (like in random and stratified sampling)
Opportunity sampling - cons
- biased since sample is drawn from a small part of the target population might not be representative
- participants may refuse to take part, making the final sample likely to respond to demand characteristics
What are repeated measures
When the participant takes part in all conditions of the study
Repeated measures - pros
+ good control of participant variables since the same person is tested twice
+ fewer participants are needed than independent groups design
Repeated measures - cons
- order effects produced, e.g. participants might be better in the second condition after practicing or perform less since they are tired
- might make it easier for participants to guess the aim of the study
What are independent measures
Different participants are allocated to two or more experimental group representing different levels of the independent variable
There may be a control group
Independent measures - pros
+ avoids order effects since each participant is only tested once
+ avoids the possibility than a repeated measures design
Independent measures - cons
- no control of participant variables, e.g. participants from group b may be contrastingly different, scoring differently
- needs more participants than a repeated measures design
What are matched pairs design
Participants with similar variables are paired, each in a different group
Matched pairs - pros
+ controls for participants through matching — similar to repeated measures
+ avoids order effects since it is similar to independent groups design
Matched pairs - cons
- very time-consuming to match participants on key variables
- may not control all participant variables, only matching variables known to be relevant
What is an experimental hypothesis
A statement about the effect of the IV on the DV
Should include both levels of the IV
Should be precise and operationalised
E.g. people who sleep more do better on a memory test
IV: amount of sleep
DV: results of memory test
What is an one tailed directional hypothesis
States the direction of the hypothesis
E.g. people who sleep for 8 hours have a higher score on a memory test than those who sleep for 5 hours
What is a two-tailed directional hypothesis
States that there is a difference
E.g. .people who sleep for 8 hours will perform differently on a memory test than those who sleep for 5 hours
What is the null hypothesis
States that there is no difference
E.g. there is no difference between the memory test scores of people who sleep for 8 hours than those who sleep for 5 hours
What is an experiment
A research method which demonstrates casual relationships, all experiments have an IV and DV
What are IV and DV variables
IV: a factor directly manipulated by the experimenter to observe the effect of the DV
DV: measured by the experimenter to assess the effects of the IV
What is operationalisation
Variables must be operationalised
E.g. operationalising memory would be giving participants the same memory test, the DV would be the memory score
What is a lab experiment (IV and DV)
IV manipulated by experimenter: e.g. having them sleep in a lab to control the hours they sleep
DV measured in a laboratory: e.g. a test to measure memory
What is a field experiment
IV: manipulated by the experimenter
E.g. telling participants to wake up after 8 hours and conducting the study in home
DV: may be measured in the ‘field’
E.g. the participant’s own home
What are extraneous variables
Any variable other than the IV might potentially affect the DV
This includes both participant and situational variables
What are participant variables
Characteristic of the participant
What are situational variables
The environment that may affect performance
What are confounding variables
Special class of extraneous variables It changes systematically with the IV, so you cannot be sure that any change int he DV was due to the IV
E.g. study on memory — cannot be sure whether words were remembered better because they are familiar or since they were the first words on the list
What is predictive validity
The extent to which a test score is actually related to the behaviour you wanted to measure
Test score can forecast performance on another measure of the same behaviour
E.g. score on a memory test or an IQ test should be positively related to the performance in A level exams
Ecological validity - lab experiment - pros
+ high level of control, minimising confounding/ extraneous variables (increasing validity)
+ can be easily replicated because most aspects of the environment is controlled
Ecological validity - lab experiment - cons
- contrived situation where participants may not behave naturally. Low ecological validity
- demand characteristics and researcher bias/ effects may reduce validity
Ecological validity - field experiment - pros
+ less contrived, whole experience has mundane realism, higher ecological validity
+ avoids demand characteristics and researcher bias/ effects if participants’ aren’t aware they’re being studied
Ecological validity - field experiment - cons
- less control of extraneous variables, reduces validity
- may be more time consuming since experimenters have to set up a field experiment (more expensive)
- may have ethical issues if covert observation is used
What is a questionnaire
Respondents record their own answers, there are predetermined questions, prepared in a written form and there is no face-to—face contact
Questionnaire - pros
+ self-reports finds out what people think and feel
+ can be easily repeated so data can be collected from large numbers of people
+ respondents may feel more willing to reveal personal information when it is anonymous
Questionnaire - cons
- might not always tell the truth, social desirability bias
- the sample may be biased since only certain types of people would fill out the questionnaire
What are closed questions (and the type of data they collect)
Fixed number of possible answers
Collect quantitative data
Closed questions - pros and cons
+ easy to analyse quantitative data since numbers can be summarised through using statistics
+ answers more objective
- many not permit people to give their precise feelings, lacks validity
- oversimplifies reality and human experience — reductionistic
What are open questions (and the type of data they collect)
Respondents to provide their own answers
Collect qualitative data