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Biology > REPRODUCTION and immunity > Flashcards

REPRODUCTION and immunity Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
0
Q

scrotum

A

sac that houses the testes outside the abdomen

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1
Q

asexual

A

process in which a single cell or set of cells produces offspring that inherit all of their genetic material from one parent

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2
Q

sexual

A

process in which genetic material from two parents combines and produces offspring that differ genetically from either parent

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3
Q

spermatozoa (sperm)

A

the mature motile male sex cell of an animal, by which the ovum is fertilized, typically having a compact head and one or more long flagella for swimming

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4
Q

epididymis

A

Long, thin coiled tube where sperm mature and are stored

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5
Q

prostate gland

A

I gland surrounding the neck of the bladder in male mammals and releasing prostatic fluid

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6
Q

testosterone

A

A steroid hormone that stimulates development of male secondary sexual characteristics, produced mainly in the testes, but also in the ovaries and adrenal cortex

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7
Q

steroid

A

any of a large class of organic compounds with a characteristic molecular structure containing four rings of carbon

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8
Q

acrosome

A

holds enzymes in a sperm

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9
Q

urethra

A

the tube in the penis for both semen and urine

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10
Q

three glands that make semen

A

seminal vesicle
cowpers
prostate

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11
Q

the structure in testes that makes sperm

A

seminiferous tubule

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12
Q

where is the egg typically fertilized?

A

in the fallopian tube

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13
Q

what closes off the uterus and dilates when a woman is in labor

A

cervix

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14
Q

which cells nurture the egg?

A

follicle

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15
Q

what does FSH tell the ovary to make

A

follicle

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16
Q

layer that becomes muscle and bones

A

mesoderm

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17
Q

A neurological gland that releases growth hormone

A

pituitary gland

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18
Q

outer layer of blastocyst

A

trophoblast

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19
Q

endometrium

A

where blastocyst embeds

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20
Q

types of pathogens

A

fungus, virus, bacteria, Protozoa

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21
Q

pathogen fungus examples

A

athletes foot, yeast infection

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22
Q

virus pathogen examples

A

HIV, herpes, chickenpox, swine flu

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23
Q

bacteria pathogen examples

A

tuberculosis, E. Coli, strep throat, leprosy

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24
Q

protazoa

A

malaria, amoebic dysentery

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25
Q

prions

A

infectious proteins

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26
Q

a “big eater” that works by phagocytosis

A

macrophage

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27
Q

lymphatic system

A

A part of the circulatory system that collects fluids and blood

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28
Q

what starts puberty

A

release of hormones

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29
Q

how oftem do eggs mature?

A

every 28 days

one at a time in alternate ovaries

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30
Q

menstrual cycle

A

rhythmic and maturation of eggs and other chemical and physical events that accompany the process

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31
Q

how is the menstrual cycle controlled

A

by chemical messengers (hormones) that move via the bloodstream

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32
Q

hormones

A

chemical messengers that move via the bloodstream

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33
Q

follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

A

hormone that when high enough in levels start the maturing process of the eggs in a woman’s ovary

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34
Q

where does each egg mature?

A

inside of a follicle

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35
Q

follicle

A

cluster of protect cells, near the surface f one of the eggs

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36
Q

when the egg is fully mature, which hormone reaches its peak?

A

LH (Luteinizing Hormone)

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37
Q

when does the follicle burst open and release the egg?

A

when LH and FSH reach high levels

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38
Q

ovulation

A

when the follicle bursts open and releases the egg

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39
Q

what sweeps the egg into the tube which leads to the uterus

A

cilia

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40
Q

as a reaction to increasing levels of what hormone, the lining of the uterus (also called the endometrium) has been prepared to receive a fertilized egg by building it’s lining with nurturing tissues and blood vessels

A

estrogen

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41
Q

when does the remaining follicle tissue become a hormone secreting gland (corpus luteum)

A

after the egg is released from the follicle in the ovary

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42
Q

which glad releases the hormone progesterone?

A

corpus luteum

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43
Q

high levels of which hormones help maintain the uterus wall lining as it is built up and thickened

A

progesterone and estrogen

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44
Q

what happens if the released egg remains unfertilized?

A

it does not implant in the uterus lining. This triggers further hormonal changes. Both estrogen levels and progesterone levels drop. This causes the lining of the uterus (also called the endometrium) to deteriorate. As a result, both unfertilized egg and uterus lining shed and are passed out of the body

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45
Q

periodic loss of tissues and fluid from the uterus

A

menstruation

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46
Q

why do females often break out in pimples before menstruation?

A

because the skin and estrogen are responding to estrogen

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47
Q

why don’t bones respond to estrogen?

A

only target cells with the right receptors respond to the hormone estrogen. You do not have receptor for estrogen on bone cells

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48
Q

pituitary gland

A

located at the base of the brain. Secretes the two hormones that trigger the growth and development of the the egg in the Overy (FSH and LH)
in response, the ovary then secretes the two sex hormones that control development of the egg in the uterus lining (estrogen and progesterone) when ovarian hormones reach low levels, this stimulates the pituitary gland to once again secrete it’s hormones to trigger the next cycle

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49
Q

the female gamete

A

ova/egg

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50
Q

group of cells that protect the egg

A

follicle

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51
Q

female gonad

A

ovary

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52
Q

leftover follicle that makes progesterone

A

corpus luteum

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53
Q

causes the formation of the corpus luteum

A

leutenizing hormone

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54
Q

works with estrogen to thicken the endometrium

A

progesterone

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55
Q

on what day does the FSH reach its peak in concentration

A

13-14

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56
Q

what day does LH reach its peak in concentration?

A

14

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57
Q

what happens to the egg on day 14 after LH reaches its peak

A

The follicle bursts open and releases a fully developed egg and during a process known as ovulation

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58
Q

what gland secretes estrogen?

A

ovary

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59
Q

on what day does estrogen reach its peak in concentration?

A

12-13

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60
Q

why does the female need a steak uterus lining if fertilization does occur?

A

thick lining will catch and support the developing embryo

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61
Q

what makes menstruation cycle?

A

hypothalamus restarts process when hormones are low

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62
Q

first line of nonspecific chemical body defenses

A

sweat
oil
mucus
acid

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63
Q

first line of nonspecific physical body defenses

A

shedding epidermis

cell membrane

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64
Q

“moat”

A

sweat
oil
mucus

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65
Q

“wall”

A

physical barriers

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66
Q

second line of nonspecific body defenses

A

Macrophage (guard)

Swelling) Histamine (alarm

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67
Q

humoral response

A

b cells that attack using antibodies (CIA)

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68
Q

cell mediated response

A

cytotoxic t cells that attack by popping

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69
Q

first trimester time period

A

1-12 weeks

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70
Q

at what week will the srY gene either turn on or stay off?

A

8 weeks

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71
Q

which hormone stars contractions?

A

oxytocin

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72
Q

parasite

A

uses host organelles for energy and to make offspring

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73
Q

retro viral infection

A

insert genetic information which embeds with in the host genes, eventually destroying host

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74
Q

gamates

A

human sex cells

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75
Q

how are human sex cells made?

A

meiosis

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76
Q

purpose of semen

A

fluid that raises the pH to above seven to neutralize the vagina, produces sugar first sperm to eat, lubricant, for sperm to swim

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77
Q

muscular tube that propels the spermatozoa towards the urethra

A

vas deferense

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78
Q

three glands that make semen

A

seminal vesicle
cowpers
prostate

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79
Q

monthly steps for females

A

one. The pituitary hormones LH and FSH are released into the blood
two. An ovum starts to develop a follicle which produces estrogen so the uterine lining gets thick
three. at day 14 ovulation occurs
four. follicle becomes the corpus luteum, which makes progesterone
five. the corpus luteum dies so the uterine lining is uneeded and us shed in a process called menstruation
six. the egg doest meet a soerm in the fallopian, so it dissolves
seven. another ovum starts to develop in one of the ovaries and the process begins again

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80
Q

hypothalamus

A

detects low hormone levels triggers master gland

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81
Q

gastrulation

A

infolding of blastocyst forming germ layers

  1. endoderm
  2. mesoderm
  3. ectoderm
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82
Q

functions of blood

A

transporting oxygen, water and nutrients to cells.
distributes hormones throughout body
removes waste products
fight infection and heal wounds

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83
Q

leukocytes

A

white blood cells
have a nuclei and mitochondria
responsible for fighting infection/ preventing growth of cancer

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84
Q

pathogens

A

disease causing organisms or viruses

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85
Q

types of pathogens

A 
certain bacteria
protozoans
fungi
worms
viruses
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86
Q

infectious diseases

A

diseases that are caused by pathogens

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87
Q

disease

A

I just order of structure or function in a human, animal or plant especially one that produces specific signs are sometimes

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88
Q

germ theory of disease

A

infectious disease is caused by pathogens that can spread the disease from one organism to another organism

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89
Q

how pathogens are transmitted

A 
inhaling
physical contact
contaminated food or water
sexual contact 
animals
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90
Q

ideal location for the virus to invade cells and multiply

A

mucous membrane

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91
Q

nonspecific defenses

A

does not distinguish one invader from another

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92
Q

epidermis

A

outer layer of skin that is comprised of tough, dead cells that most bacteria and other organisms cannot penetrate. constantly shedding so bacteria cannot embed and grow

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93
Q

lysozome

A

found in saliva and tears. an enzyme that breaks down the cell walls of many bacteria

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94
Q

digestive and respiratory system

A

lined with mucous membranes (barrier)
mucus in the trachea creates a sticky barrier the traps microorganisms. Silly on movies trapped particles up to the pharynx where there swallowed. Then, stomach acids and enzymes help to destroy the pathogens, as well as many other of microorganisms and your food and drink

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95
Q

what happens if pathogen evade the first line of body defenses

A

met with second line: internal nonspecific defenses
includes certain pathogen destroying white blood cells, the inflammatory response, and certain specialized proteins. Since they do not single out specific pathogen, these defenses are also said to be nonspecific, like the first line of differences

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96
Q

macrophage

A

destroys microorganisms through phagocytosis

when it encounters invading pathogen, it engulfs it. enzymes like lysozymes kill the pathogen

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97
Q

neutrophils

A

smaller and more numerous than macrophages.

kill by phagocytosis.

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98
Q

at three weeks the embryo has three layers that make up the embryonic disk. Which layer will become the muscles and bones?

A

mesoderm

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99
Q

what hormone causes the egg and follicle to mature?

A

FSH

Follicle Stimulating Hormone

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100
Q

what hormone is produced by the corpus luteum?

A

progesterone

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101
Q

FSH in the male causes the production of…

A

spermatozoa

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102
Q

which hormone is responsible for fraternal twins?

A

FSH

follicle stimulating hormone

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103
Q

what hormone will an embryo send to the corpus luteum to ensure that it continues progesterone production?

A

LH

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104
Q

at eight weeks, testosterone floods the fetus and turns it into a

A

male

xy

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105
Q

after implantation, the developing human is called an

A

embryo

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106
Q

the lungs, and the digestive and reproductive systems result from the…

A

endoderm

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107
Q

mitosis stages after interphase:

A

prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telephase

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108
Q

The stage of mitosis where the chromosomes appear in the nuclear membrane breaks down

A

prophase

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109
Q

where must sperm pass when going from the vagina to the uterus

A

cervix

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110
Q

contains the eggs

produce estrogen and testosterone

A

ovary

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111
Q

crater like structure that produces progesterone and estrogen

A

corpus luteum

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112
Q

a membrane found at the opening of the vagina

A

hymen

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113
Q

This part of the sperm contains an enzyme that can dissolve the egg coating

A

acrosome

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114
Q

this gland provides a protective coating that counteracts vaginal acids

A

prostate

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115
Q

provides food (fructose) for the sperm

A

seminal vesicle

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116
Q

this is where sperm is manufactured in the testicles

A

seminiferous tubules

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117
Q

where sperm is stored. It is attached directly to the testes

A

epididymis

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118
Q

The bursting of the follicle and the formation of the corpus luteum is controlled by

A

LH

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119
Q

what does luteinizing hormone from the pituitary gland cause to bd produced in males

A

testosterone

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120
Q

what does follicle-stimulating hormone from the pituitary gland caused be produced in the male body

A

sperm

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121
Q

a mature egg cell

A

ovum

122
Q

endometrium

A

inner uterine lining

123
Q

difference between fallopian tube and oviduct

A

no difference

oviduct is the medical term

124
Q

what do male pituitary glands release?

A

LH and FSH
testes release testosterone after puberty
never release progesterone

125
Q

pituitary releases..

A

LH and FSH
triggers the ovary to release estrogen
after day 14 the corpus luteum releases the estrogen

126
Q

what triggers the white blood cells response to attack

A

recognizing foreign molecules

127
Q

Natural Killer (NK)

A

type of white blood cell
they recognized body cells that have become infected by a virus and kill them by releasing chemicals that poke holes in the infected cells membrane. Natural killer cells also recognize and attack abnormal body cells such as cancer cells. They played a key role in defending against cancer by killing abnormal cells before they can form a tumor

128
Q

inflammatory response

A

A nonspecific defense characterized by redness, heat, swelling, and pain.

129
Q

mast cells

A

cells that release a type of chemical alarm called histamine at the site of pathogen invasion

130
Q

histamine

A

A chemical secreted by mast cells which causes nearby blood vessels to dilate. The expanded blood vessels increase the volume of blood flowing to the injured tissue. In addition, the vessels become more porous, allowing more blood plasma to leak into the interstitial fluid.

131
Q

dilate

A

expand

132
Q

interstitial fluid

A

A solution that famous and surrounds the cell of multicellular animals. It is the main component of the extracellular fluid, which also includes plasma entry and cellular fluid.

133
Q

what happens during an inflammatory response

A

during an inflammatory response, chemical signals trigger changes in blood vessels and attract white blood cells that help destroy the invaders

134
Q

phagocyte

A

A type of cell within the body capable of engulfing and absorbing bacteria another small cells and particles

135
Q

what produces the redness, heat, swelling and pain you may experience around the injured area

A

The local increase of bloodflow, fluid, and white blood cells

136
Q

what is the major function of the inflammatory response

A

removing pathogens and cleaning injured tissues. Inflammation may occur in a tiny area, such as the site of a mosquito bite. Or, if pathogens get into the body or release toxins that are carried throughout the body by the circulatory system, the whole body may react with an inflammatory response. In such a response white blood cells increased and a fever may occur

137
Q

why is a high fever dangerous

A

because it can destroy proteins and cause other damage. But a moderate fever may contribute to the defense by stimulating phagocytosis and stopping the growth of many kinds of microorganisms

138
Q

interferon

A

A family of proteins produced by cells in response to becoming infected by a virus. the infected cell may die, but it’s interferon reaches healthy cells in the area, stimulating them to produce proteins that interfere with virus reproduction. affected against many viruses so it is nonspecific. affective against flu and common cold

139
Q

antiviral proteins

A

proteins that are introduced about human or animal cells to interfere with viral replication

140
Q

name two major functions of the immune system

A

sdestroy pathogens and detect and kill abnormal cells

141
Q

which type of pathogen is always intracellular

A

viruses

142
Q

examples of surface barriers

A

skin, mucus membranes

143
Q

examples of innate internal defenses

A

cells and chemicals in body fluids

144
Q

adaptive defenses (specific)

A

t and b cells

145
Q

after the surface barriers a.k.a. any external defenses are penetrated, what is the next line of defense?

A

me (nonspecific) internal defenses

146
Q

name the four keyways adaptive defenses differ from innate defenses

A

are specific, they involve BNT lymphocytes, they have memory, and they can act anywhere in the body

147
Q

specific b cells called plasma cells secrete antibodies which bind to the

A

antigens

148
Q

what is the first line of defense in lungs?

A

mucus in the nasal cavity traps foreign particles before they can enter the lungs

149
Q

scribe how macrophages protect the human body

A

macrophages engulfed any pathogens that have passed the physical barriers. engulfing process is called phagocytosis

150
Q

how do B cells recognize a specific virus? What do they do with the virus after they recognize it?

A

each of these cells have a different receptor protein on the surface of the used to attach to a particular virus. When he sounds fine to the virus than golfing and then break it into pieces to display pieces on the outside to alert helper T cells. Eventually these cells become antibody producing factories

151
Q

b cells produce y shaped proteins called

A

antobodies

152
Q

Albertise cells will use chemical signals called

A

cytokines

trigger infected b cells to multiply

153
Q

what is the purpose of a memory cell

A

The memory cell will rapidly produce the virus/antigen when they encounter the virus during the second infection. This is why you never get really sick with that virus again

154
Q

The kind of blood cells that play a role in the body’s immune system

A

white

155
Q

A substance for into the body, such as disease causing organisms, that stimulates the body’s immune system

A

antigen

156
Q

A protein substance produced by the body to fight and invading foreign substance such as a disease causing organisms

A

antibody

157
Q

immune system T cells developed in this gland

A

thymus

158
Q

a chemical produced by the body that protects against viruses

A

interferon

159
Q

The immune system can cause this response following an organ transplant

A

rejection

160
Q

lymphocyte

A

A specific white blood cell that is involved in antibody production

161
Q

The process by which a white blood cell ingests a disease causing organisms

A

phagocytosis

162
Q

what does AIDS stand for

A

acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

163
Q

what does HIV stand for?

A

human immunodeficiency virus

164
Q

disease characterized by a breakdown of the body’s immune system

A

AIDS

165
Q

A substance injected into the body that helps protect against disease

A

vaccine

166
Q

The type of immunization that is long-lasting

A

active

167
Q

the type of immunity that is short term

A

passive

168
Q

the type of disease in which the immune system itself attacks the body

A

autoimmune

169
Q

lymphocyte that alerts when the body is invaded

A

helper t cell

170
Q

cells that release ntobodies

A

plasma cells

171
Q

turn into plasma cells

A

B lymphocytes

172
Q

they poke holes in infected cells

A

Cytotoxic or killer T cells

173
Q

third line of defense

A

immune system

174
Q

The immune system

A

third line of defense. this system recognizes and defense against specific pathogens, cancer cells, and certain chemicals. specific/targeted defense.

175
Q

immunity

A

when the body is resistant to the pathogenx that causes a specific disease.

176
Q

how is immunity acquired

A

by becoming infected by the pathogen

177
Q

antigen

A

A large molecule, usually a protein, that provokes an immune response.
antibody generating

178
Q

antobodies

A

proteins found on the surface of certain white blood cells, or in blood plasma, that attach to particular antigens

179
Q

most common antibody shape

A

y shape

180
Q

what is at the tip of each arm of the Y

A

antigen binding site, or antigen receptor

181
Q

what does the shape of the binding site make it possible for the antibody to do

A

for the anti-body to recognize a specific antigen with a complementary shape. each antigen sits on the surface of the invading particle and has a particular shape but knobs that protrudes from the surface

182
Q

markers

A

unique to each antigen

183
Q

explain how a specific antibody can bind to a specific antigen

A

just as a particular key is shaping able to fit into a specific lock, the antigen marker fits into a specific antibody. There is a huge variety in the three-dimensional shapes of antigen binding sites. This variety gives antibodies the ability to recognize an equally large variety of antigens

184
Q

how are antigens neutralized

A

an anti-body tags the invader by binding to the antigen molecule. This triggers mechanisms that neutralize or destroy the invader

185
Q

what does binding to an antigen do

A

The binding of antibodies stops and viruses from attaching to a host cell. This disables the virus and halts further infection.

186
Q

antigens cause pathogens to clump together. What does this clumping do

A

this clumping makes the cells easy targets for phagocytes to capture and destroy

187
Q

complement ptoteins

A

antibodies me also activates immune system chemicals called complement proteins that can attach to viral services or bacterial membranes. These proteins help to call viruses for fish is a Texas by white blood cells are puncture holes in bacterial outer membranes, causing the pathogen to break open. All of these antibiotic mechanisms involving specific recognition and attack phase, followed by nonspecific destruction phase

188
Q

lymphocytes

A

The white blood cells that recognize specific invaders

189
Q

where do lymphocytes originate

A

in bone marrow from stem cells

190
Q

b cells (b lymphocytes)

A

A white blood cell that continues their development in bone marrow.

191
Q

T Cells or T Lymphocytes

A

transported to the thymus gland where they mature

192
Q

where do both B cells and T cells eventually travel to

A

in the blood to the lymph nodes and other parts of the lymphatic system

193
Q

what enables things to target particular antigens

A

The ability to target particular antigen is due to the specific shapes of the antigen receptors on the lymphocyte surface

194
Q

B cells play a key role in

A

humoral immunity

195
Q

he sells played a major role in

A

cell mediated immunity

196
Q

helper t cell mission

A

to coordinate immune system attacked by a recruiter sheeting and activating other immune system cells

197
Q

when ejaculation occurs during sexual intercourse, the sperm enters where

A

the vas deferens

198
Q

what do B cells defend primarily against

A

bacteria and viruses that are found outside of cells in body fluids

199
Q

what activates a B cell

A

when fighting a pathogen, a B cell containing the matching androgen receptor binds to the antigenic the pathogen. activation means that the B cell grows and clones itself, forming millions of identical cells. Each of the cells is capable of developing into a plasma cell

200
Q

plasma cell

A

A cell that produces and secretes antibodies specific to the antigen that activated the original b cell

201
Q

humoral immunity

A

Community that originates from the cells

202
Q

how do t cells work

A

T cells work by directly attacking hosts that contain multiplying bacteria or viruses. these host cells are actually body cells that have become infected

203
Q

how do T cells recognize infected cells?

A

each T-cell has receptors for a specific antigen. When a pathogen infects a body cell, the pathogens antigens are displayed on the surface of the body cell

204
Q

cytotoxic T cells

A

T cell clones which is then attack cells infected with the pathogen that triggered the response. Cytotoxic T cells binding to an infected cells membrane and poke holes in it by secreting a protein called perforin
The infected so leaks fluid, breaks open, and dies

205
Q

what happens during the humoral response

A

b cells produce antibodies after being activated by free antigens present in body fluids

206
Q

what happens during a cell mediated response

A

cytotoxic t cells attack infected cells that display the antigens of pathogens on their surface

207
Q

helper t cell

A

both you moral and cell mediated immunity gets a boost from a particular type of lymphocyte called helper T cells. Like all lymphocytes, helper T cells are present in many versions, each with surface receptors that recognizes specific antigen. Like cytotoxic T cells, the helper T cells activated by finding to sells the display antigens of a pathogen. But the antigen displaying sell that helper T cells recognize her macrophages, the white blood cell that you pathogens bifacial sentences.

208
Q

how do helper T cells respond to this announcement

A

by secreting chemicals that activate both cytotoxic T cells and B cells

209
Q

cell mediated immunity

A

attack on infected cells

210
Q

humoral immunity

A

secretion of antibodies by plasma cells

211
Q

long lasting lymphocytes

A

memory cells

212
Q

primary immune response

A

The first formation of B and T cells to battle new invading pathogen. this first response is relatively slow and we can because time is needed for enough specific lymphocytes to form to detect the pathogen

213
Q

secondary immune response

A

A second exposure to the same pathogen triggers a much quicker and stronger response

214
Q

The second exposure stimulates the memory B cells to rapidly produce plasma cells double secrete antibodies specific to that antigen. Meanwhile memories cells a.k.a. T cells rapidly produce large numbers of cytotoxic T cells that attack cells infected with the pathogen. The process is so quick but you don’t develop symptoms of the disease. Your body destroys the invader before you feel sick

A

swaq

215
Q

Dr. Jonas Salk

A

polio vaccine

216
Q

vaccine

A

A dose of a pathogen or part of a pathogen that is been disabled or destroyed so it is no longer harmful

217
Q

booster shot

A

this shot is an additional dose of an antigen that boosts antibody production and extends the memory for that antigen

218
Q

why are booster shots important

A

because some of the initial memory cells that were produced after the first shot died

219
Q

active immunity

A

whenever your body produces antibodies against infection. can develop from catching a disease such as chickenpox or from receiving a vaccine, such as that for polio.

220
Q

passive immunity

A

when your body receives antibodies for a particular disease from another source

221
Q

allergy

A

an abnormal oversensitivity to an otherwise non-harmful antigen which is called an allergen

222
Q

antihistamine

A

A drug that blocks the action of histamine, minimizing symptoms of an allergic reaction

223
Q

anaphylactic shock

A

dangerous type of allergic reaction

224
Q

autoimmune disease

A

The immune system turns against some of the bodies own molecules

225
Q

what happens when HIV destroys the body’s helper T cells

A

The immune system cannot activate other T cells or B cells. Both the Hume oral and cell mediated immune responses are impaired, and the body cannot fight pathogens.

226
Q

an organism that causes an infectious disease is called

A

pathogen

227
Q

where are eggs produced

A

ovary

228
Q

uterus

A

hollow, muscular organ with thick walls, roughly the size and shape of a pear

229
Q

neck of the uterus

A

cervix

230
Q

connects the uterus to the vagina

A

cervix

231
Q

vagina

A

flexible, thin walled organ about 9 cm long

232
Q

functions of the vagina

A

receives the penis and spermatozoa during intercourse
birth canal through which the baby exits
passage way for menstrual flow

233
Q

the main male reproductive structures

A 
testes
scrotum
epididymis
vas deferens
penis
234
Q

where do sperm begin development

A

testes

235
Q

singular of testes

A

testis

236
Q

function of the scrotum

A

house the testes outside the main body cavity to keep them cool

237
Q

semen

A

The substance that is emitted during the process called ejaculation

238
Q

ejaculation

A

muscular contractions propel spermatozoa from the epididymis through the connecting ducts called the vas deferens and finally through the urethra

239
Q

ejaculation takes place muscles at the base of the urethra contract and close off the outlet from the

A

bladder

240
Q

penis

A

and organ consisting mainly of specialized tissues called erectile tissue. filling of this tissue with blood causes an erection

241
Q

through what process are sex cells generated

A

meiosis

242
Q

when does the development of the egg cells begin

A

before a female is born

243
Q

primary oocyte

A

a diploid cell that is in the prophase stage of meiosis 1. at this stage the process pauses

244
Q

secondary oocyte

A

egg/ova

245
Q

ovum

A

mature egg cell with a haploid nucleus that is capable of fusing with a spermatozoa

246
Q

primary spermatocyte

A

the beginning process of spermatozoa synthesis

247
Q

where do spermatozoa complete development

A

epididymis

248
Q

ovarian cycle

A

refers to the cyclic changes that occur in the ovaries

249
Q

menstrual cycle

A

refers to the cyclic changes that take place in the uterus

250
Q

first part of the ovarian cycle

A

follicular phase

251
Q

what triggers the hypothalamus to secrete a releasing hormone, which causes the anterior pituitary to secrete follicle-stimulating hormone and lutenizing hormone

A

low estrogen levels

252
Q

as the follicle matures, what does it secrete

A

estrogen

253
Q

hypothalamus

A

A region of the forebrain below that Salamis that cord needs both the autonomic nervous system and the activity of the pituitary

254
Q

what do rising levels of LH signal in males

A

signal the testes to produce and secrete testosterone

255
Q

what stimulates spermatozoa production

A

the combination of FSH and testosterone

256
Q

the master control center of that endocrine system

A

hypothalamus

257
Q

prolactin

A

stimulates milk production

anterior lobe

258
Q

Fertilization

A

occurs when the egg and sperm cells fuse

259
Q

zygote

A

fertilized sex cell

260
Q

what does successful fertilization require

A

living sperm in the oviduct on the day of, or shortly after, ovulation.

261
Q

function of the acrosome

A

contains enzymes that help the spermatozoa cells penetrate the protective coats of the oocyte

262
Q

50/50 chance

A

chance of entering the wrong oviduct the one that doesn’t contain the egg

263
Q

what prevents more than one sperm from entering

A

once one sperm successfully contracts the plasma membrane of the oversight, a barrier forms on the oocytes surface that prevents other sperm from entering. This ensures that just one sperm nucleus will be present to fuse with the ovums nucleus

264
Q

mid piece

A

contains mitochondria

265
Q

developing human (after 9 weeks)

A

embryo

266
Q

implantation

A

The embedding of the blastocyst in the second endometrium that lines the uterus

267
Q

The function of a trophoblast

A

The trophoblast grows, extending into the endometrium and anchoring the blastocyst in place. The trophoblast contributes to the development of the membranes that will nourish and protect the embryo. The intercell mass will eventually form the organism itself

268
Q

The result of more than one egg being fertilized during an ovarian cycle. For this to happen, both ovaries must release an egg, or one ovary must release two eggs

A

fraternal twins

269
Q

why are fraternal twins genetically different

A

each zygote fraternal twins is formed from a different egg and sperm. As a result, the genetic information for fraternal twins is different for each individual, and the same way that brothers and sisters born at different times have different genetic material.

270
Q

The result of one early stage embryos splitting into two

A

identical twins

271
Q

what does the embryo consist of at implantation

A

The trophoblast and an inner cell mass

272
Q

where do stems cells come from

A

The intercell mass gradually gives rise to the organs and tissues of the embryo. Cells of this inner mass are also called stem cells

273
Q

gastrulation

A

approximately three weeks after fertilization, a process called gastrulation takes place. Gastrulation forms three cell layers: ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm

274
Q

three layers of gastrulation

A

ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm

275
Q

ectoderm

A

outer layer

forms the outer part of the embryo skin and the central nervous system

276
Q

endoderm

A

inner layer

forms the digestive track and lungs

277
Q

mesdoderm

A

middle layer

forms most of the other organs

278
Q

amnion

A

A membrane that forms a fluid filled sac

protects the embryo from physical impact

279
Q

yolk sac membrane

A

produces the first blood cells and is the source of cells that eventually form gametes

280
Q

chorion

A

A third membrane that becomes the embryos portion of the placenta

281
Q

what forms part of the umbilical cord that connects the embryo to the placenta

A

allantois

282
Q

placenta

A

soon after implantation, trophoblast cells and cells from the uterus form an important structure called the placenta. The placenta develops inside the uterus and surrounds the embryo. This structure enables nutrients and waste products to be transferred between the mother and developing baby

283
Q

by when is the placenta fully formed and functional

A

the third month

284
Q

fetus

A

from week 9 to birth

name of developing human

285
Q

fetal position

A

when the fetus is filling up much of the space in the uterus and it curls forward

286
Q

24 until birth

A

third trimester

287
Q

why is it important for pregnant mothers to be nutritious

A

during pregnancy, substances and the mothers bloodstream are transferred to the fetus is bloodstream, this is how the fetus is nourished for nine months. But this transfer process can pose a serious health risk for the fetus is the mother doesn’t have a healthy lifestyle.

288
Q

labor

A

A series of strong arrhythmic contractions of the muscles of the mother’s uterus

289
Q

lymphocyte

A

eventually become B cells (bone marrow) go to blood stream slash lymphatic system
or T cells (thymus)

white blood cells

290
Q

nonspecific defense mechanism

A

first line of defense

second line of defense

291
Q

spleen

A

part of lymphatic system that helps filter waste that the lymph finds. located mid abdomen area

292
Q

amniotic sac

A

sac in which the fetus develops

293
Q

tonsils

A

part of the lymphatic system in the throat

294
Q

HCG

A

human chorionic gonadotropin
produced in the pituitary gland
levels raise when pregnant

295
Q

t cell vs helper t cell

A

helper t cell would activate the cytotoxic t cells

296
Q

capsid

A

outer layer that incloses the virus

protein coat

297
Q

cleavage

A

when a cell pinches to split into two

298
Q

gonads

A

ovary and testes

299
Q

lytic

A

make more viral protein

300
Q

trophoblast becomes…

A

placenta
umbilical chord
amniotic sac

301
Q

blastocyst becomes..

A

embryo

endo meso ecto

302
Q

lytic vs lyso

A

lytic - virus attaches, inserts, tricks to make new, continues to make new in body
lyso - attaches, inserts, hides in nucleus, comes out, hides again

Biology (15 decks)

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