Remembering and Judging Flashcards
memory
the ability to store and retrieve information over time
cognition
the processes of acquiring and using knowledge
types, stages and process of memory
explicit memory
Implicit memory
Sensory memory
Short-term memory
Long-term memory
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Explicit memory (two types)
knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered
episodic
semantic
episodic memory
the firsthand experiences that we have had (e.g., recollections of our high school graduation day or of the fantastic dinner we had in New York last year)
semantic memory
our knowledge of facts and concepts about the world (e.g., that the absolute value of −90 is greater than the absolute value of 9 and that one definition of the word “affect” is “the experience of feeling or emotion”).
recall memory test
a measure of explicit memory that involves bringing from memory information that has previously been remembered
eg essay test
recognition memory test
measure of explicit memory that involves determining whether information has been seen or learned before
eg, multiple choice test
measures of relearning (or savings)
assess how much more quickly information is processed or learned when it is studied again after it has already been learned but then forgotten
implicit memory (three types)
the influence of experience on behavior, even if the individual is not aware of those influences
procedural memory, classical conditioning effects
priming
Procedural memory
our often unexplainable knowledge of how to do things
walk from one place to another, speak to another person in English, dial a cell phone, or play a video game,
classical conditioning effects
we learn, often without effort or awareness, to associate neutral stimuli (such as a sound or a light) with another stimulus (such as food), which creates a naturally occurring response, such as enjoyment or salivation
priming
changes in behavior as a result of experiences that have happened frequently or recently
the activation of knowledge (e.g., we can prime the concept of “kindness” by presenting people with words related to kindness) and to the influence of that activation on behavior (people who are primed with the concept of kindness may act more kindly)
eg, word fragment test
stages of memory
Sensory, Short-Term, and Long-Term Memory
stages that describe the length of time that information remains available to us, some not making it all the way through
Sensory memory
the brief storage of sensory information
lasts only very briefly to give the brain time to process and is forgotten if no attention is given to it
iconic memory
Visual sensory memory, these decay very rapidly
George Sperling
echoic memory
Auditory sensory memory, these last longer than iconic memories, usually 4 seconds
eidetic imagery (or “photographic memory”)
people who can report details of an image over long periods of time
Short-term memory (STM)
the place where small amounts of information can be temporarily kept for more than a few seconds but usually for less than one minute
info that we turn our attention to and that becomes available to us for processing
it is actually a set of procedures or operations, not a store
working memory
the processes that we use to make sense of, modify, interpret, and store information in STM
central executive
the part of working memory that directs attention and processing
e.g., solving a math problem and then remembering a letter multiple times
central executive will make use of whatever strategies seem to be best for the given task (e.g., maintenance rehearsal, chunking)
maintenance rehearsal
the process of repeating information mentally or out loud with the goal of keeping it in memory
Chunking
the process of organizing information into smaller groupings (chunks), thereby increasing the number of items that can be held in STM
long-term memory (LTM),
memory storage that can hold information for days, months, and years. The capacity of long-term memory is large, and there is no known limit to what we can remember
Encoding
the process by which we place the things that we experience into memory. Unless information is encoded, it cannot be remembered.
elaborative encoding
process new information in ways that make it more relevant or meaningful
elaborate on new information to encode it, eg by linking it to other information or contextualizing it, encode it in a way that relates to yourself
Hermann Ebbinghaus
a pioneer of the study of memory
He discovered an important principle of memory: Memory decays rapidly at first, but the amount of decay levels off with time
spacing effect
the fact that learning is better when the same amount of study is spread out over periods of time than it is when it occurs closer together or at the same time
overlearning
continuing to practice and study even when we think that we have mastered the material
this is beneficial
Retrieval
the process of reactivating information that has been stored in memory
Context-dependent learning
an increase in retrieval when the external situation in which information is learned matches the situation in which it is remembered
state-dependent learning
superior retrieval of memories when the individual is in the same physiological or psychological state as during encoding
primacy effect
a tendency to better remember stimuli that are presented early in a list
recency effect
the tendency to better remember stimuli that are presented later in a list
serial position curve
results curve that results from the primacy and recency effect
Retroactive interference
learning something new impairs our ability to retrieve information that was learned earlier
Proactive interference
earlier learning impairs our ability to encode information that we try to learn later
categories
memories in LTM are linked together into networks of associated memories that have features in common with each other
spreading activation
occurs when activating one element of a category activates other associated elements.
prototype
the member of the category that is most average or typical of the category
these are retrieved faster than others that are less prototypical
schemas
patterns of knowledge in long-term memory that help us organize information
schemas about objects (that a triangle has three sides and may take on different angles), about people (that Sam is friendly, likes to golf, and always wears sandals), about events (the particular steps involved in ordering a meal at a restaurant), and about social groups (we call these group schemas stereotypes)
LTM Retention
LTM involves a gradual strengthening of the connections among the neurons in the brain
long-term potentiation (LTP)
the strengthening of the synaptic connections between neurons as result of frequent stimulation
consolidation
period of time in which LTP occurs and in which memories are stored
hippocampus in memory
serves as a preprocessor and elaborator of information
helps us encode information about spatial relationships, the context in which events were experienced, and the associations among memories
holds the memory for a short time and then directs the information to other parts of the brain, such as the cortex, to actually do the rehearsing, elaboration, and long-term storage
cerebellum and the amygdala in memory
concentrating on implicit and emotional memories, respectively
retrograde amnesia,
a memory disorder that produces an inability to retrieve events that occurred before a given time
Anterograde amnesia
is the inability to transfer information from short-term into long-term memory, making it impossible to form new memories
Glutamate
a neurotransmitter and a form of the amino acid glutamic acid, is perhaps the most important neurotransmitter in memory
When animals, including people, are under stress, more glutamate is secreted, and this glutamate can help them remember
also serotonin, estrogen and epinephrin
Cognitive biases
errors in memory or judgment that are caused by the inappropriate use of cognitive processes
Source monitoring
the ability to accurately identify the source of a memory.
ie, real or a dream
or source of the information
sleeper effect
attitude change that occurs over time when we forget the source of information
confirmation bias
the tendency to verify and confirm our existing memories rather than to challenge and disconfirm them
comes from an over-reliance on schemas
leads us to remember information that fits our schemas better than we remember information that disconfirms them
Functional fixedness
occurs when people’s schemas prevent them from using an object in new and nontraditional ways
misinformation effect
errors in memory that occur when new information influences existing memories
overconfidence
the tendency for people to be too certain about their ability to accurately remember events and to make judgments
flashbulb memory
a vivid and emotional memory of an unusual event that people believe they remember very well
heuristics
information-processing strategies that are useful in many cases but may lead to errors when misapplied
representativeness heuristic
we base our judgments on information that seems to represent, or match, what we expect will happen, while ignoring other potentially more relevant statistical information
eg, representative examples of our idea of what randomness should look like
gambler’s fallacy
people who see a flipped coin come up “heads” five times in a row will frequently predict, and perhaps even wager money, that “tails” will be next
availability heuristic
The tendency to make judgments of the frequency or likelihood that an event occurs on the basis of the ease with which it can be retrieved from memory
salience bias
we are more likely to attend to, and thus make use of and remember, some information more than other information
we tend to attend to and remember things that are highly salient, meaning that they attract our attention
Things that are unique, colorful, bright, moving, and unexpected are more salient
Cognitive accessibility
the extent to which knowledge is activated in memory, and thus likely to be used in cognition and behavior
people have highly accessible schemas about environmental issues, eating healthy food, or drinking really good coffee. When schemas are highly accessible, we are likely to use them to make judgments of ourselves and others, and this overuse may inappropriately color our judgments.
counterfactual thinking
The tendency to think about and experience events according to “what might have been”
