Intro & Scientific Method Flashcards

1
Q

structuralism

A

Uses the method of introspection to identify the basic elements or “structures” of psychological experience

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

main structuralists

A

Wundt, Titchener

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

functionalism

A

understand why animals and humans have developed the particular psychological aspects that they currently possess;

influenced by Darwinism - became evolutionary psychology

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

main functionalist

A

William James

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

psychodynamic psychology

A

approach to understanding human behavior that focuses on the role of unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

behaviorism

A

based on the premise that it is not possible to objectively study the mind, and therefore that psychologists should limit their attention to the study of behavior itself

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

main psychodynamics

A

Freud, Jung, Adler

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

main behaviorists

A

Pavlov (classical conditioning)

Watson (Locke’s tabula rosa)

Skinner (operant conditioning)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

humanistic

A

reaction against psychoanalysis and behaviorism; uniquely positive human characteristics; understand from phenomenological perspective, individual perspective

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

main humanists

A

Rogers (getting in touch with self and personal growth)

Maslow (hierarchy of needs)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

cognitive psychology

A

studies mental processes, including perception, thinking, memory, and judgment

when we take into consideration how stimuli are evaluated and interpreted, we understand behavior more deeply.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

main cognitive psychologists

A

Ebbinghaus, Barlett, Piaget (memory is influenced by what we already know was also a major idea behind the cognitive-developmental stage model)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

social-cultural psychology

A

study of how the social situations and the cultures in which people find themselves influence thinking and behavior

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

social norms

A

the ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving that are shared by group members and perceived by them as appropriate

include customs, traditions, standards, and rules, as well as the general values of the group

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

culture

A

the common set of social norms, including religious and family values and other moral beliefs, shared by the people who live in a geographical region

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

personality psychoogy

A

These psychologists study people and the differences among them. The goal is to develop theories that explain the psychological processes of individuals, and to focus on individual differences.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Basic research

A

research that answers fundamental questions about behavior

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Applied research

A

research that investigates issues that have implications for everyday life and provides solutions to everyday problems.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

laws

A

Principles that are so general as to apply to all situations in a given domain of inquiry

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

theory

A

an integrated set of principles that explains and predicts many, but not all, observed relationships within a given domain of inquiry.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Qualities of a good theory

A

general, meaning they summarize many different outcomes.

parsimonious, meaning they provide the simplest possible account of those outcomes

falsifiablewhich meansthe variables of interest can be adequately measured and the relationships between the variables that are predicted by the theory can be shown through research to be incorrect

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

research hypothesis

A

a specific and falsifiable prediction about the relationship between or among two or more variables

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

variable

A

any attribute that can assume different values among different people or across different times or places

24
Q

Conceptual variables

A

abstract ideas that form the basis of research hypotheses. Sometimes the conceptual variables are rather simple—for instance, “age,” “gender,” or “weight.” In other cases the conceptual variables represent more complex ideas, such as “anxiety,” “cognitive development,” “learning,” self-esteem,” or “sexism.”

25
measured variables
variables consisting of numbers that represent the conceptual variables. first step in testing a hypothesis e.g., he conceptual variable “participating in psychotherapy” could be represented as the measured variable “number of psychotherapy hours the patient has accrued” 
26
operational definition
a precise statement of how a conceptual variable is turned into a measured variable
27
Research Designs
Descriptive Correlational Experimental
28
Descriptive Research
a snapshot of the current state of affairs Provides a relatively complete picture of what is occurring at a given time. Allows the development of questions for further study. Does not assess relationships among variables. May be unethical if participants do not know they are being observed.
29
Types of Descriptive Research
case studies—descriptive records of one or more individual’s experiences and behavior.  survey—a measure administered through either an interview or a written questionnaire to get a picture of the beliefs or behaviors of a sample of people of interest. The people chosen to participate in the research (known as the sample) are selected to be representative of all the people that the researcher wishes to know about (the population).  naturalistic observation—is research based on the observation of everyday events. 
30
Descriptive Statistics
numbers that summarize the distribution of scores on a measured variable - to describe the outcomes of descriptive research
31
central tendency
the point in the distribution around which the data are centered
32
mean, median, mode
mean is the most commonly used measure of central tendency. It is computed by calculating the sum of all the scores of the variable and dividing this sum by the number of participants in the distribution median is the score in the center of the distribution, meaning that 50% of the scores are greater than the median and 50% of the scores are less than the median.  mode, represents the value that occurs most frequently in the distribution. 
33
dispersion
refers to the extent to which the scores are all tightly clustered around the central tendency
34
standard deviation
the most commonly used measure of dispersion Distributions with a larger standard deviation have more spread.
35
correlational research
involves the measurement of two or more relevant variables and an assessment of the relationship between or among those variables
36
correlational variables and their relationships
one of them is called the predictor variable and the other the outcome variable Positive Linear Negative Linear Independent Curvilinear patterns of association in which, although there is an association, the points are not well described by a single straight line (Increases in anxiety from low to moderate levels are associated with performance increases, whereas increases in anxiety from moderate to high levels are associated with decreases in performance)
37
Pearson correlation coefficient
measurement of correlation: ranges from r = –1.00 to r = +1.00; Positive values of r (such as r = .54 or r = .67) indicate that the relationship is positive linear; negative values of r (such as r = –.30 or r = –.72) indicate negative linear relationships strength of the linear relationship is indexed by the distance of the correlation coefficient from zero (its absolute value). For instance, r = –.54 is a stronger relationship than r = .30, and r = .72 is a stronger relationship than r = –.57.
38
Multiple regression
statistical technique, based on correlation coefficients among variables, that allows predicting a single outcome variable from more than one predictor variable predictor variables of salary, satisfaction and years employed with outcome of job performance
39
common-causal variable
a variable that is not part of the research hypothesis but that causes both the predictor and the outcome variable and thus produces the observed correlation between them. 
40
spurious relationship
a relationship between two variables in which a common-causal variable produces and “explains away” the relationship.
41
experimental research
research hypothesis suggests that the manipulated independent variable or variables will cause changes in the measured dependent variables
42
independent variable
the causing variable that is created (manipulated) by the experimenter.
43
dependent variable
a measured variable that is expected to be influenced by the experimental manipulation. 
44
Initial Equivalence among experimental conditions
e.g., random assignment to conditions, a procedure in which the condition that each participant is assigned to is determined through a random process, such as drawing numbers out of an envelope or using a random number table.
45
Threats to Research Validity
Construct validity Statistical conclusion validity Internal validity
46
Construct validity
the extent to which the variables used in the research adequately assess the conceptual variables they were designed to measure.  One requirement for construct validity is that the measure be reliable, where reliability refers to the consistency of a measured variable.
47
Statistical conclusion validity
refers to the extent to which we can be certain that the researcher has drawn accurate conclusions about the statistical significance of the research.
48
Statistical significance 
the confidence with which a scientist can conclude that data are not due to chance or random error. 
49
Internal validity 
the extent to which we can trust the conclusions that have been drawn about the causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables  e.g.: expectancy effects - telling the subjects that they are being given alcohol experimenter bias - a situation in which the experimenter subtly treats the research participants in the various experimental conditions differently, resulting in an invalid confirmation of the research hypothesis. 
50
double-blind experiment
both the researcher and the research participants are blind to condition. 
51
external validity
the extent to which relationships among conceptual variables can be demonstrated in a wide variety of people and a wide variety of manipulated or measured variables, ie, generalized
52
Generalization 
the extent to which relationships among conceptual variables can be demonstrated in a wide variety of people and a wide variety of manipulated or measured variables. If generalization is not possible, then there is a limiting condition
53
meta-analysis
a statistical technique that uses the results of existing studies to integrate and draw conclusions about those studies. 
54
longitudinal research designs
research designs in which individuals in the sample are followed and contacted over an extended period of time, often over multiple developmental stages.
55
Cross-sectional research designs
an alternative to longitudinal designs. age comparisons are made between samples of different people at different ages at one time
56
Cohort effects
confounding principle referring to the possibility that differences in cognition or behavior at two points in time may be caused by differences that are unrelated to the changes in age. The differences might instead be due to environmental factors that affect an entire age group.