Growing and Developing Flashcards
Development
the physiological, behavioral, cognitive, and social changes that occur throughout human life, which are guided by both genetic predispositions (nature) and by environmental influences (nurture).
infancy
the developmental stage that begins at birth and continues to one year of age
childhood
the period between infancy and the onset of puberty
adolescence
the years between the onset of puberty and the beginning of adulthood
adulthood
including emerging, early, middle, and older adulthood; and finally, the preparations for and eventual facing of death
zygote
a fertilized ovum
embryo
begins when zygote attaches to wall of uterus; lasts for 6 weeks
fetus
9 weeks after conception
teratogens
substances that can harm the fetus
air pollution and radiation, but also the cigarettes, alcohol, and drugs that the mother may use
survival reflexes
innate reflexes
Rooting reflex
baby turns head in direction of a cheek that is stroked - feeding is reflexive
Blink reflex
protects eyes from bright light
withdrawal reflex
pinprick in foot, baby flexes leg
Tonic neck reflex
laid on its back, it turns its head to one side and extends arm on same side - develops hand eye coordination
Grasp reflex
grasping objects placed in its hand - exploratory learning
Moro reflex
loud noise or drop in height while holding baby, baby extends arms and legs quickly and brings them back in - protects from falling
Stepping reflex
hold baby up and move it forward, it tries to step
Other innate things
preference for sweet tastes, smell of mother,
habituation/habituation procedure
the decreased responsiveness toward a stimulus after it has been presented numerous times in succession
indicates that babies learn and adapt to environment at early stage
Main founders of Developmental Psychology
Jean Piaget
Erik Erikson (Freudian)
Erik Erikson’s Theory
Children need to attain initiative, competence and independence, i.e., learn to explore the world, to become self-reliant, and to make their own way in the environment
Schemas
patterns of knowledge in long-term memory—that help them remember, organize, and respond to information
according to Piaget, these are used by children to learn and make sense of the world, reconciling schema when they learn new things
assimilation
children use already developed schemas to understand new information
Accommodation
learning new information, and thus changing the schema
Piaget’s Stages
Sensorimotor 0-2
Preoperational 2-7
Concrete Operational 7 - 11
Formal operational - 11 to adulthood
sensorimotor stage
the cognitive stage that begins at birth and lasts until around the age of 2. It is defined by the direct physical interactions that babies have with the objects around them
e.g., object permanence
preoperational stage
2 -7, children begin to use language and to think more abstractly about objects, but their understanding is more intuitive and without much ability to deduce or reason
ie, cannot operate or transform objects mentally
egocentric
unable to readily see and understand other people’s viewpoints
because children cannot view transitions, they are egocentric
theory of mind
the ability to take another person’s viewpoint, and the ability to do so increases rapidly during the preoperational stage
concrete operational stage
from age 7, marked by more frequent and more accurate use of transitions, operations, and abstract concepts, including those of time, space, and numbers
conservation
occurs during concrete operational stage, the understanding that changes in the form of an object do not necessarily mean changes in the quantity of the object
e.g., glasses of milk
formal operational stage
from 11, marked by the ability to think in abstract terms and to use scientific and philosophical lines of thought
Newer Developments to Piaget
basically that things can happen earlier and that environment and social learning (e.g., community learning) can impact the stages
self-concept
a knowledge representation or schema that contains knowledge about us, including our beliefs about our personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals, and roles, as well as the knowledge that we exist as individuals
eg, mirror test, infants pass at 18 months
aware of sex at age 2
at 4, self descriptions based on physical features
at 6, more abstract emotions and concepts, “I am nice” and comparisons w other children
attachment
The emotional bonds that we develop with those with whom we feel closest, and particularly the bonds that an infant develops with the mother or primary caregiver
babies have social as well as physical needs, they need a “secure base” to develop socially
strange situation
May Ainsworth
experiment conducted in a context that is unfamiliar to the child and therefore likely to heighten the child’s need for his or her parent
reveals different types of attachment style of children
Disorganized Attachment Style
seems to have no consistent way of coping with the stress of the strange situation—the child may cry during the separation but avoid the mother when she returns, or the child may approach the mother but then freeze or fall to the floor
Secure Attachment Style
usually explores freely while the mother is present and engages with the stranger
Ambivalent Attachment Style
ambivalent (sometimes called insecure-resistant) attachment style is wary about the situation in general, particularly the stranger, and stays close or even clings to the mother rather than exploring the toys
Avoidant Attachment Style
(sometimes called insecure-avoidant) attachment style will avoid or ignore the mother, showing little emotion when the mother departs or returns
Attachment Style Nature or Nurture?
Most developmental psychologists believe that socialization is primary
But, also influenced by temperament
temperament
the innate personality characteristics of the infant
emerging adulthood
previously, adulthood began in early 20s, now it is later,
this is arguably a new stage between 18 and middle or late 20s
puberty
a developmental period in which hormonal changes cause rapid physical alterations in the body, culminating in sexual maturity
9-14 for girls
10 - 17 for boys
begins when the pituitary gland begins to stimulate the production of the male sex hormone testosterone in boys and the female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone in girls
primary sex characteristics
the sex organs concerned with reproduction
secondary sex characteristics
(features that distinguish the two sexes from each other but are not involved in reproduction)
menarche
the first menstrual period, typically experienced at around 12 or 13 years of age
reason for adolescent impulsiveness
may be in part because the development of the prefrontal cortex is, in general, slower than the development of the emotional parts of the brain, including the limbic system
hormonal surge also contributes
Adolescent main social task
search for identity
Erikson’s Challenges
Erikson believed that each life stage has a unique challenge that the person who reaches it must face. And according to Erikson, successful development involves dealing with and resolving the goals and demands of each of the life stages in a positive wa
Oral-sensory
Birth to 12 to 18 months
Trust versus mistrust
The child develops a feeling of trust in his or her caregivers.
Muscular-anal
18 months to 3 years Autonomy versus shame/doubt
The child learns what he or she can and cannot control and develops a sense of free will.
Locomotor
3 to 6 years
Initiative versus guilt
The child learns to become independent by exploring, manipulating, and taking action.
Latency
6 to 12 years
Industry versus inferiority
The child learns to do things well or correctly according to standards set by others, particularly in school.
Adolescence
12 to 18 years
Identity versus role confusion
The adolescent develops a well-defined and positive sense of self in relationship to others.
Young Adulthood
19 to 40 years Intimacy versus isolation
The person develops the ability to give and receive love and to make long-term commitments.
Middle Adulthood
40 to 65 years Generativity versus stagnation
The person develops an interest in guiding the development of the next generation, often by becoming a parent.
Late Adulthood
65 to death
Ego integrity versus despair
The person develops acceptance of his or her life as it was lived.
James Marcia Adolescent Identity Classification
adolescents are asked questions regarding their exploration of and commitment to issues related to occupation, politics, religion, and sexual behavior. The responses to the questions allow the researchers to classify the adolescent into one of four identity categories
Identity-diffusion status
The individual does not have firm commitments regarding the issues in question and is not making progress toward them.
Foreclosure status
The individual has not engaged in any identity experimentation and has established an identity based on the choices or values of others.
Moratorium status
The individual is exploring various choices but has not yet made a clear commitment to any of them.
Identity-achievement status
The individual has attained a coherent and committed identity based on personal decisions.
social identity
the part of the self-concept that is derived from one’s group memberships.
Kohlberg’s Theory
argued that children learn their moral values through active thinking and reasoning, and that moral development follows a series of stages:
three stages of moral thinking: the preconventional level, the conventional level, and the postconventional level.
developed by posing moral dilemmas to adolescents
criticized as over simplified and based solely on boys
morality
standards of behavior that are generally agreed on within a culture to be right or proper.
Preconventional morality
Young children
Until about the age of 9, children, focus on self-interest. At this stage, punishment is avoided and rewards are sought. A person at this level will argue, “The man shouldn’t steal the drug, as he may get caught and go to jail.”
Conventional morality
Older children, adolescents, most adults
By early adolescence, the child begins to care about how situational outcomes impact others and wants to please and be accepted. At this developmental phase, people are able to value the good that can be derived from holding to social norms in the form of laws or less formalized rules. For example, a person at this level may say, “He should not steal the drug, as everyone will see him as a thief, and his wife, who needs the drug, wouldn’t want to be cured because of thievery,” or, “No matter what, he should obey the law because stealing is a crime.”
Postconventional morality
Many adults
At this stage, individuals employ abstract reasoning to justify behaviors. Moral behavior is based on self-chosen ethical principles that are generally comprehensive and universal, such as justice, dignity, and equality. Someone with self-chosen principles may say, “The man should steal the drug to cure his wife and then tell the authorities that he has done so. He may have to pay a penalty, but at least he has saved a human life.”
early adulthood
the ages between 25 and 45
middle adulthood
between 45 and 65
4 parenting styles
Authoritarian
Authoritative (demands but reasonable and collective) - generally best
Permissive (few demands, little punishment)
Rejecting-neglecting (undemanding and unresponsive)
late adulthood
the final life stage, beginning in the 60s
crystallized intelligence
general knowledge about the world, as reflected in semantic knowledge, vocabulary, and language
elderly typically have more of this
fluid intelligence
the ability to think and acquire information quickly and abstractly
young generally better at this
Dementia
a progressive neurological disease that includes loss of cognitive abilities significant enough to interfere with everyday behaviors,
Alzheimer’s disease
form of dementia that, over a period of years, leads to a loss of emotions, cognitions, and physical functioning, and which is ultimately fatal
Elizabeth Kübler-Ross
five phases of grief through which people pass in grappling with the knowledge that they or someone close to them is dying
