RELIGIOUS TENSION

Question 1

William Gould: Religion and Conflict
* The concept of community
* Role of religion in anti-colonial mobilisation
* Movement solidarity
* Colonial response
* Imapct on post-colonial society

Answer 1

• The Concept of Community
• • Ever growing and changing entities, not fixed entities
• • Various factors will shape the image of communities e.g., religion
• • Discusses how communities responded colonial rule
• **Role of religion in anti-colonial mobilisation **
• Role of religious leaders
• Wielded signif. influence and authority -> paragons of moral behaviour; influence communities
• Religious ideologies framed anti-colonialism as a righteous cause -> emphasising liberation and justice as the cornerstone of religious teachings
• –>Gave movements legitimacy and purpose through a moral dimension
• Religious practices -> gatherings created a sense of unity and support for demonstrations and collective action
• –>Fund. to mobilisation of communities
• Navigators -> tensions within religious communities due to conflicting ideas towards colonial rule
• –>Had to mitigate to mobilise a greater base of support .: fostering cohesion was essential -> used religion in a strategical manner
• Religious ideologies
• –>Unifying force that cultivated a deep sense of solidarity
• –>Mobilised communities against anti-colonial resistance
• Information -> oppressive nature of colonialism was communicated through religious ideologies
• –>Colonial rule supressed religious beliefs and practices .: ideologies perpetuated anti-colonial support and opposed colonial rule
• –>Framed as a righteous war, a war for liberation
• Leaders -> essential to spreading anti-colonial ideas and organising resistance
• –>Organised protests and boycotts
• Collective identities and nationalist narratives -> foundation for self-determination
• –>Local cultures were deemed superior to British -> unit diverse communities

**Solidarity of movements across different religions **
* Anti-colonial movements -> transcended religious divisions and differences by fostering a strong sense of solidarity
* –>Colonial rule threatened and suppressed traditional Indian practices .: mutual resentment and grievances amongst all religious groups
* Leaders and organisations -> recog. of common threats across diff. communities encouraged them to create alliances
* –>Together, they protested colonial rule and help joint protests
* Morality and ethics -> sharing similar ideas in this realm (justice and equality) gave them common ground to build on
* Forum of communication -> allowed various representators from different faiths to converse and exchange strategies to mobilise collective action
* Challenges -> regular tension and conflict
* –>Varying priorities and different aspirations

• **The response of colonial powers to religious mobilization **
• Threat -> colonial govt. saw religious m. as a direct threat to their authority and control
• –>Challenges and protested the existing power dynamic
• Supress and repress -> violence and force to control protests
  *–> Arrests and torture was commonplace
• –> Religious restrictions were enforced e.g., gatherings as a potential form to mobilise against colonial govt.
• **Control leaders **-> manipulate and control leaders to prevent them rising as sources of opposition
• –> Privileges, positions of authority, material gains as bribes
• –>Attempt to undermine leaders and neutralise their influence
• Divide and Rule -> weaken religious unity and undermine solidarity
• –>Exploit existing tensions or sectarian rivalries and deepen them
• –>Hope to prevent collective action
• –> Usually very effective in dismantling the collective strength
• Westernisation -> impose their own culture and ideologies to diminish traditional Indian practices
• –>Depicted indigenous culture and primitive and backwards .: Western culture was modern and superior
• –>Cultural assimilation policies ad attempts of religious conversion were means to weaken the power and strength of traditional religions

*** Impact of anti-colonial mobilisation on post-colonial society **
* –>Challenged existing power structures, set a precedent to advocate for social change and created new identities and ideologies
* Identities -> imposition of foreign culture and values eroded long-standing traditional practices and beliefs
* –>Anti-col. movements were a direct attack on this; seeking to revive and promote indigenous culture
* –>Saw a resurgence of local cultures and identities in post-indep. societies
* New movements and ideologies -> perpetuated new visions of society and politics
* –>Ideologies coalesced around similar conceits of national liberation and self-determination
* Social and gender changes -> support for indep. encompassed indiv. from all classes and socio-eco backgrounds
* –>This created a sense of solidarity too and created new alliances, allowing nationalist movement to reach a bigger audience
* –> Role of women

Question 2

Anil Seal & Ayesha Jalal ‘Muslim politics between the wars.’
* Challenges faced
* Economic difficulties
* Religious tensions
* Issues over religious identity
* Ideological movements
* Khilafat Movement

Answer 2

• The challenges Muslims faced during the wars impacted their political aspirations
• Examples of political marginalisation and impacts
• Restricted govt. representation
• –>Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919 - constitutional reforms which allowed elected legislative councils
• —–>But the representation was based on religious identity .: Muslims suffered disproportionate representation
  *——> Hindered their influence and involvement over decision-making process
• ——>Their interests were marginalised and overlooked
• Internal division within Muslim community
• –>Ability to engage with colonial govt. and political influence within the nationalist govt was restricted by diversity within Muslim community
• –>Disagreements were common with varying ideologies, regional interests and interests e.g., over education and representation within India’s nationalist movement
  *
• Examples of economic difficulties and impacts
• **The decline of traditional industries **
• –>Muslims of a lower socio-eco. background were heavily involved in traditional industries
• –>Being pushed out by modern industries e.g., demand for handwoven textiles was replaced by demand for machine-made textiles
• –>Those whose livelihood was dependent upon this occupation suffered hardships disproportionately
• Modern economic sectors
• –>Urbanisation and industrialisation provided economic opportunities that were inaccessible for Muslims
• –>Lower access to education and to capital meant their skill-sets were lower and remained underrepresented in new commercial sectors
• –>Further marginalised and widened socio-eco. differences
• Socio-economic marginalisation
• –>Ongoing eco. challenges and difficulties created poverty and regular landlessness within Muslim communities
• –>Their involvement in economic and social dvlp. was restricted -> political agency and representation was heavily butchered.

Examples of religious tensions
* Religious identity
* –>Problems of political representation and agenda stemmed from fragmented beliefs over a Muslim identity
* –>Divisions between those wanting to emphasise themselves as a separate religious and cultural community
* —–>A clear division from the Hindu community
* –>The other end of the scale - those wanting to highlight commonalities between Hindus and Muslims within the broader sphere of Indian nationalism
* –>Tensions and debates prevented cohesiveness
Communal tensions
* –>Political, social and economic factors were the reasons behind instances of violence
* –>Created feelings of animosity and fear within the Muslim community, as a minority, as political marginalised
* –>British played a role in worsening this divide and animosity
* Social factors
* Issue of identity
* –>Some were seeking to strengthen and assert their respective identities - distinct and different
* –>Competition and conflict emerged as each community attempted to promote their identity
* –>E.g., clashes over religious processions and sites instigated communal violence
* Social mobility
* –>Jealousy and competition as both communities were trying to rise up the social hierarchy
* –>Eco. success for one community was a failure for the other
* Cultural differences
* –>Respective identities had their own cultural practices and traditions - room of misinterpretation and misunderstandings
* –>These differences like diets and language became key areas of agitation
* Social differences
* –>Being two distinct communities meant they ostracised one another
* –>Resulted in ghettoization and segregation, preventing social integration and normalising an ‘us vs them’ consensus
* Impact of religious movements
* –>Rise of Hindu nationalist movement worsened tensions and anxieties between these two communities
* –>Fears of a Hindu-centric vision of India
* –>Muslim organisations like the Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind and the All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen
* –>Proposed alternative strategies to address the paralysing issues within Muslim communities - created more differences

Examples of issues over religious identity among Muslims
* Muslim identity
* –>Contention over the creation of a Muslim identity - leaders and organisations were perpetuating diff. concepts of belonging and identity which fractured an already minority community.
* –>Communal Award 1932 - different receptions within Muslims community; argued it was encouraging communalism by entrenching religious differences
Hindu Dominance
* –>Rising Hindu power and influence in all spheres made Muslims fear a loss of autonomy and erosion of their identity, as Hindus would impose their religious identity
* –>Fear of dominance wasn’t uncalled for - Hindu were the dominate religion and heavily mobilised social and political dvlps.
* –>Perceived by Muslims as attempts to further marginalise them
* –>E.g., Hindu Mahasabha was a RW nationalist movement demanding for a Hindu state
Communal Riots and Violence
* –>Violence was always on the rise due to differences over religious identities - sparked violence through rumours or disputes
* –>Further eroded trust between communities and subjugated them as two distinct groups, undermining the nationalist movement
* –>E.g., Moplah rebellion in 1921 - eco. grievances grew into communal conflict
Differing interpretations of Islam
–>Many discussions and diff. interpretations over the correct practice of Islam
–>Leaders and organisations did not share a consensus over this; differing ideas about modernity, nationalism and religious reform
–>Instigated further tension and conflict
–>E.g., the introduction of Western education saw those advocating for liberal Islam vs orthodox

Examples of different ideological movements amongst Muslims
* In response to the changing socio-political landscape within India
Pan-Islamism> Muslim solidarity that would transcend national boundaries
* –>Safeguarding Muslim interests on a global scale
* –>E.g. Khilafat Movement was a response to the Allied Powers abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate
Muslim Nationalism -> separate Muslim identity within the Indian fight for indep.
*–> Demanded separate representation for them as a minority
* –>AIML 1906 was a key leader of this ideology; calls for a separate Muslim state - Pakistan
Modernism -> reconcile Islam with modernity e.g., democracy and science
* –>Reform Muslim societies in a progressive manner; uplift and improve their ability to participate
Traditionalism -> preservation of traditional Islam in the wake of modernity
* –>Deoband movement - demand for a reversion to traditional Islamic teachings, criticising the modern values within Muslim societies
Revivalism -> revitalise the spiritual aspect of Islam within Muslim communities
* –>Promoted social justice in accordance with Islamic principles and religious observance
* –>E.g., Tablighi Jamaat 1927 wanted to practice Islam at its most pure form, seeking moral reformation among Muslims
Feminism -> promote women’s rights and gender equality within an Islamic context
* –>Challenges traditional norms of patriarchy that resided within Islam and oppressed women
* –>E.g., Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain was a Muslim feminist advocating for women’s education and employment within an Islamic framework

Khilafat Movement Mobilisation of Muslims-> created solidarity
* –>Muslims from multiple classes and regions partook in a unified protest against the abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate
* Interfaith Cooperation -> Muslims and Hindus worked together at an unprecedented rate
* –>Maulana Mohammad Ali and Maulana Shaukat Ali were key Muslim leaders who worked with the INC
Political concessions -> led to Muslims demanding political concessions within India
* –>Argued to attack the Ottoman Caliphate was to single-handedly deteriorate Muslim status in India
*–> Wanted greater political representation and improved socio-eco. conditions e.g., reserved seats in legislative councils and protecting Muslim laws
Impact on Muslim Nationalism -> fuelled Muslim identity and pride across social classes
* –> Increased support for AIML
Aftermath -> failure to achieve their goal left a bitter taste on Muslim politics in India
* –>Galvanized Muslims in India and strengthened their political consciousness
* –>Impacted their demands for a separate Muslim state through a growing sense of pan-Islamic identity amongst them

Question 3

Gyanesh Kudaisya and Tan Tai Yong

Answer 3

Competing visions between Hindus and Muslims over nationalism
* Secular Nationalism vs Religious Nationalism
o SN -> Indian identity that transcended religious divisions
* Focused on highlighting social harmony and equal rights, irrespective of religious differences
o RN -> two nations with their own cultures and histories, deserved their own states
* Representation and Rights of Minorities
o Hindus and Muslims did not share similar concepts minority rights
o Hindu Mahasabha represented Hindus - promoting the culture and safeguarding the rights of Hindu
o Muslims wanted guaranteed protection in political, economic and social sphere - did not have faith in protection of minority rights
* Language and Identity
o Language was understood as a clear indication of cultural differences, reinforcing different visions for India’s future
o Hindus were fighting for Hindi to be declared the national language vs Muslims fought for protection of Urdu and Bengali
* Historical Narratives
o Influenced their conceptions of nationalism; different understanding about their role and placement on the subcontinent
o Hindu nationalists highlighted the ancient Hindu civilisation of India; traditions and culture moulded their concept of nationalism
o Muslims emphasised their architectural and literary contributions as the basis of their nationalism