INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS Flashcards
Thomas Metcalf
* INC emergence
* British response
* Imapct on women
* Non-cooperation movement
* Hindu-Muslim tensions
* Economic challenges
* Rise of Nationalism
* Women’s involvement
* Political developments
Emergence of the Indian National Congress
* 1885-1919; prominent political organisation in the wake of societal activism and colonial restraints
* The voice of Indians on a political platform; air grievances and demands against British
* Through ongoing exploitation and oppressive policies, discontent emerged
* Evolved over time - provided the foundation for a more radical approach that was adopted in time
* As colonial govt. increased their constraints, radical leaders and ideologies grew
Issues addressed
* Raising awareness of issues like eco. exploitation, employer discrimination and prevention of civil liberties
* Focused on promoting education and social welfare
* Desire to create unity across the divisions widened by British rule
Objectives and strategies
* Wanted to work from within the colonial framework to achieve reforms e.g., greater representation and protecting Indian interests
* Lobbying and petitions - non-violent
Challenges faced
* Organisation was very diverse -> leaders from different religions, socio-eco. backgrounds and regions
* Different ideological positions
* Moderates v radical voices; disputes over direct action and cautious reforms
* British response
* Saw this organisation as suspicious - attempts to constrain via publication censorship and limiting their meetings
* Size and influence of INC spread across the subcontinent regardless
Restraints imposed British Raj in response to emergence of civil groups
* Censorship
* Vernacular Press Act of 1878 -> British gained control over Indian langue press; prevent criticism of British rule
* Confiscate printing press and punish publishers for harmful material
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* Repression
* Spies and informants to monitor activities of threatening organisations
* Those suspected of engaging in anti-govt. activities were arrested
Restrictions
* Indian Arms Act of 1878 and the Indian Police Act of 1861
* Control and regulate public meetings
* Regularly denied permission to hold meetings
* Implemented legislation to prevent group gatherings
Limiting participation
* Heavily restricted and suppressed the political activities of organisations that threatened British rule
* Infringed on the ability to seek representation, hold political campaigns and positions
* Electoral process was created to prevent civil groups ascending into political power
Divide and Rule
* Exploited caste, religious, regional, and caste differences to create internal divisions within civil groups
* Attempt to weaken any opposition to British rule - undermining unity
Reforms
* Offered weak concessions with limited reforms
* Indian Councils Act of 1892 and the Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909
* Allowed limited political representation and participation in govt.
* Merely to pacify demands, not intention of developing to independence or devolution
Impact on women
* Age of Consent Act - meant to be progressive but was received negatively interfering in traditional Indian practices
* Women in higher classes had greater agency over marriage
* Marginalised groups suffered pressure to conform to traditional practices
Education
* Access introduced by British was limited to the upper elite
* Emphasised English education and ignored traditional Indian education that the masses had
* Women -> exposed to Western ideas vs left behind
Social norms
* British promotion of women’s rights clashed with traditional Indian norms
* Upper elite enjoyed challenging traditional norms vs disvtg. women suffered backlash
* Gender cultural conflict
Women’s participation in nationalist movement
* Women’s participation in INC was restricted
* Social norms and limited education
* Upper class women who were influenced by Western ideas were more vocal and involved; demanding women’s rights and equality
* Marginalised women faced more barriers, thus, their participation was limited
Non-cooperation movement
* Reasons
* Discontent towards the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms -> failed to met the Indian nationalists expectations of self-governance and representation
* Increased desire for improved change
* Disillusionment -> Indian contribution in WWI wasn’t ackldg. and continued with repressive measure to retain control
* Incrs. desire for independence from colonial domination
* Gandhi -> masses resonated with his philosophy of non-violent civil disobedience and self-governance
* Pivotal in mobilising the masses
* Economic challenges
* High taxes, poverty and unemployment -> movement allowed grievances to be vocalised
* Desire for swaraj -> primary goal of self-rule
* Indian nationalists were spurred on by democratic ideals of freedom and equality
* Taking control over India’s future
* Challenges
* British response -> violence and repression
* Mass arrests of figures like Gandhi
* Brutal force to supress protests and demonstrations
* Large casualties demoralised movement
* Internal division -> Indian nationalists each had diff. ideologies which manifested into conflicting strategies
* Disagreements over non-violent methods and who could participate
* Prevented cohesion and effectiveness
* Consequences -> many withdrew support when considering the eco. consq. of boycotting British institutions
* Prevented the movement achieving its full potential
* Limited participation -> lack of coordination and spontaneity of the movement as it dvlp. undermined its momentum and organizational structure
* Created inconsistent strategies .: weakened effectiveness
* Misdirection -> Gandhi withdrew in 1922 in response to violence in Chauri Chaura
* Followers left disorientated
Hindu-Muslim tensions (Govt. of India Act 1919)
* Communalism -> antagonistic feelings between Hindus and Muslims was based on their respective religious identities
* Divide and rule, eco. disparities, social hostility and political competitiveness fostered a divisive environment.
* Khilafat Movement -> emerged post-WWI as a pan-Islamic movement
* The Caliphate was under threat by British decisions to abolish it -> solidarity between Hindus and Muslims
* Failure to achieve its goals reverted to hostile tensions between communities
* Political competition-> Indian independence saw various political groups capitalising on religious identities to gain support in the face of political opposition
* The Hindu Mahasabha was nationalist organisation which perpetuated a Hindi-centric future for India; alienation and division
* Communal violence -> tensions erupted into physical confrontations e.g., riots and attacks on religious
* Poor British response allowed mistrust to rise and exacerbated tensions through rising death tolls.
* Separate electorates -> based on religious identities; (Govt. of India Act 1919)
* Muslims had reserved seats in legislature based on their religion
* Exacerbated religious polarization alongside political competition; sense they were fighting for representation
* INC was a secular organisation, desiring a unified and inclusive India vs AIML presented a religious and political alternative, prioritising Muslim interests
* Divergent views regarding India’s future and the politicisation of religion
Economic challenges and Indian nationalist responses
* Indian nationalists fought for economic autonomy to promote indigenous industries and protect the economic interests of Indians
* Encouraged by the exploitative economic British policies
* Indian response:
* (a) Demands for economic reforms -> Gandhi and Nehru recognised economic reforms were vital to improve India’s economic state
* British policies were harmful to Indian interests; demanded eco. autonomy
* Wanted control over trade, resources and industry to end policies favouring the British
* Abolish land revenue system and protect farmer’s rights-> created widespread rural poverty
* British policies were developing Britain whilst deindustrializing India
* (b) Economic nationalism and self-sufficiency -> eradicate dependence on British markets
* Called for the development of indigenous industries
* Economic nationalism was popularised by Gandhi who sought to imprv. emply and reduce poverty by using village industries and traditional production methods
* Gram Swaraj -> empower local communities to achieve equitable eco. progress
* Investment in education to improve the skillset and capability of work force
Rise of nationalism
* WWI -> catalyst fir Indian nationalism
* WWI -> provided men and resources w/out any compensation, and suffered a large eco. burden
* Breeding ground for disillusionment and resentment across all classes of India
* Rowlatt Act 1919 and Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
* British instituted repressive legislation to restrict civil liberties in India
* JBM -> massacre of peaceful protestors which creates mass anger
* Strengthened Indian nationalist movement; protests and demands for self-governance
* Non-Cooperation Movement
* Widespread participation from students, peasants, professionals
* Civil Disobedience Movement
* Gandhi 1930 -> use this movement to challenge British authority
* Mass protests, boycotts and not paying taxes
* Issue of Indian indep. was catapulted to the front of national and international concerns
Role of INC
* Key in organising and mobilising the masses into an effective movement against British colonial rule
* Leaders like Gandhi and Nehru became key figures in the movement
* Regional Nationalism
* Specific regions or communities expressed their individual preferences and aspirations
* E.g., leaders like Periyar E. V. Ramasamy in Tamil Nadu and Potti Sreeramulu in Andhra Pradesh demanded for separate states based on language
* Local and regional movements contributed to the bigger Indian nationalist movement
* But we already see diff. groups calling having diff. interests
Women involvement in nationalist movement
* Mass protest participation
* Engaged in those organised by INC - rallies, raised slogans
* Non-Cop. Movement and Civil Disobedience Movement saw a large female involvement
* Civil Disobedience Campaigns
* Key role in campaigns led by Gandhi e.g., Salt Satyagraha in 1930
* Collected salt from Arabian sea to protest British monopoly on the production of salt
* Women’s organisations -> All India Women’s Conference 1927
* Promoted women’s rights and empowerment alongside Indian indep.
* Involvement in the Swadeshi Movement
* Movement encouraged the boycott of British goods in preference for Indian goods
* Women promoted indigenous products like spinning and weaving khadi.
* Wanted to promote self-sufficiency and reduced British reliance
* Education -> desire to achieve social reforms e.g., improve accessibility in education
* Fought for the abolishment of widow burning and seclusion of women
Political developments (Simon Commission, the Round Table Conferences, and the Government of India Act of 1935)
* Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919) -> instituted limited self-govt. at the provincial level through an expansion of legislative councils and a wider franchise
* Not well received - inadequate and poor representation
* Non-Cooperation Movement 1920-22
* Simon Commission 1927
* British parliamentary committee who reviewed the Govt. of India Act 1919
* Response; boycotts and protests -> felt the constitutional reforms were not representative of Indian aspirations
* Civil Disobedience 1930-34 -> widespread participation
* Round Table Conferences 1930-32
* British govt. negotiated further constitutional reforms for India
* Failure to meet agreement to IND - boycotted the last two conferences
* Portrayed the rising tensions between colonial govt. and INC
* Communalism -> Indian politics co-opted religious identities as another political tool
* Divided population along religious lines
* Fears of discrimination and domination as a minority
* Become instrumental in their failure to find common ground for independence
Gyan Pandey
* INC influence in UP
* Key leaders
* Mobilising support
* ideologies
* role of religion
* Resolving religious tensions
* Role of Caste
* INC success
* INC failure
* Federalism deabtes
How the INC gained influence in the United Provinces
* Mobilisation of the masses
* –>The use of grassroots organising that lead to demonstrations and rallies wielded mass support in the UP
* –>Capitalising on Gandhi’s popular support and movements increased Congress’s influence in the region
* Electoral Politics
* –>Galvanised EP to gain influence
* –>Contested elections and formed political alliances to win electoral support
* –>Success in provincial elections consolidated political power in UP
* Social Justice Agenda
* –>Issues like caste discrimination and land reforms -> directly impacted marginalised groups
* –>Sought widespread support by engaging and addressing issues impacting various communities
* Nationalist Ideology
* –>Predominately advocated for Indian indep. -> Congress’s call for Swaraj mobilised people across communities and regions
* –>Cultivated solidarity amongst diverse groups -> rise of Congress in UP
* Broad-based Coalition
* –>Overcome boundaries like caste and religion
* –>Nehru and Pant - focused on inclusivity as a pragmatic approach to build alliances
* –>Increased their votes and influence in UP
* Leadership skills
* –>Navigated complex political landscape and dealt with communal tensions through forging alliances and addressing regional aspirations
* –>Adapted to changing circumstances -> effective strategies; consolidated Congress influence in UP
** The key leaders that led to the emergence of the INC**
* Nehru -> heavily involved in anti-colonial struggle and mobilised the youth
* Pant -> consolidated INC influence in UP
* Managed alliances
* Kidwai -> Muslim leader
* Strongly advocated Hindi-Muslim unity; bridge communal divide
Mobilising support
* Strategies
* –>Grassroots organising -> estb. local branches in villages across the UP
* –>Sought to estb. relationships with local population + educate/campaign for social justice and reforms
* –>Inclusive politics -> support from diverse and marginalised communities
* Overcome religious tensions and divides
* –>Kidwai engaged directly with Muslim community and promoted inclusive politics
* –>Engaged with farmers and women - raised their concerns and fought for rights
* Coalition building -> formed alliances to increase support base
* –>Collaborated with Kisan Sabha, T.U -> portray unified front against colonial rule
* –>Consolidated and expanded Congress influence
* Advocacy and propaganda -> mobilise support by raising awareness towards British exploitative policies
* –>Posters, newspapers - spread message
* –>Criticised policies and British rule
* –>Legal means -> issues over social justice and economic reforms were raised through the legislative council
Ideologies
* Nationalism -> freedom from colonial rule to achieve indep.
* –>Idea inured widespread support from Sikhs, Hindus Muslims
* Broad support base
* –>Constitutionalism -> institute ROL and democratic insti.
* –>Indians deserved a voice in the governance of their future
* –>Bulwarks against threats to Indian interests
* –>Appealing to many -> progressive elements cultivated support
* Social justice -> rights for lower classes and marginalised communities
* –>Land reforms and workers rights
* –>Social welfare to tackle mass inequalities
* Secularism -> religious tolerance and harmonious coexistence
* –>Congress recog. the importance of Hindu-Muslim unity
* –>Promotion and advocation of inclusive politics to instil an acceptance of religious diversity
* Anti-colonialism -> at its core, Congress ideology was anti-col.
* –>Vocal criticisms of British polices
* –>Demanded the end of British domination
* –>Restore Indian sov.
* Non-violence -> demonstrated by Gandhi
* –>Peaceful attempts to instigate and create social change
* –>This appealed to many who were wary of using physical violence
Role of religion
* Communalism -> religious differences polarised society
* –>Competing political groups exploited different religious identities to achieve their political interests
* –> INC sought to remedy this tension -> advocating for inclusive nationalism and secularism
* Symbolism -> leaders and parties often employed religious rhetoric to wield support
* –>Created a community with a shared identity, connecting with voters
* Mobilisation -> political parties mobilised religious groups to increase their political influence
* –>Religious leaders were often brought into political groups to gain legitimacy
* Communal polarization -> ‘us vs them’ sense was cultivated by political groups capitalising on religious grievances
* –>Created two sense of self’s across communities; one of victimhood and one of superiority
* –>Desire to consolidate power and mobilise support within specific communities
* Religious Alliances -> forged through religious identities to wield political advtg.
* –>Alliances with religious organisations and leaders
* –>INC alliances with Muslim organisations to achieve cross-religion support
* –> Alternative - using religious communities to isolate and secure their indiv. interests and prevent their political competitors from increasing influence
* Campaigns -> religious identities and issues were involved in election campaigns
* –>Focusing on issues in particular to their community -> pragmatic and strategic to win elections
Resolving religious tensions
* Inclusivity and Secularism -> key principles in the nationalist movement
* –>INC sought a holistic and unified population to prevent divisive religious politics
* –>INC -> included representatives from various religious communities to join in decision-making process
* –>Seen in INC polices and strategies which emphs. their concern for various community aspirations
* Engagement -> leaders sought to mitigate religious tensions
* –>Gandhi - fasted to promote harmony and comprehension between Hindus and Muslims
* Negotiation and accommodating religious interests -> focused on preventing escalating religious strife
* –>Involved protection of religious sites and focusing on religious representation and participation
* –>Sought to bridge religious tensions by reconciling differences through inclusive policies, unifying the nationalist movement
* Communalism opposition -> the politicisation of religion was a tool for political gains
* –> INC heavily opposed communal violence and polarization, making attempts to promote secularism and peaceful co-existence
* Grassroots mobilisation -> leaders focused on mass participation to cultivate a nationalist movement supported by diverse and broad communities
* –>Rallies and meetings -> aimed to involve different groups in the nationalist struggle
* –>Cultivated solidarity and shared identity between different religious groups
Role of caste
* Caste as a political identity -> signif. moulded the political landscape
* –>Competition between different caste groups -> vying for power, scarce resources and representation
* –>INC engaged with the issue of caste to increase their own political support
* Basis for mobilisation -> INC was effective in stirring up support through caste, espc. at grassroots
* –>Alliances between castes was crucial to mobilise political support
* –>Fund. in expanding base support and building broad-based political alliances
* Caste and representation -> in the UP, shaped the patterns of political representation
* –>Caste groups desired political representation and inclusion -> INC navigated competing demands to create a diverse and inclusive leadership
* –>Caste considerations influenced election candidates and how power was distributed
* Caste and political alliances -> INC needed to consolidate political power against a backdrop of political opponents and a diverse population
* –>Strategic alliances with different castes secured their political power
* –>Provided support bases and disseminated their nationalist message -> increasing influence
* –>Considering diff agendas and interests -> alliances were complex, often juggling competing aspirations
* Social reforms -> INC wanted to tackle caste-based discrimination and oppression
* –>Advocates for social justice and equality through inclusive social reforms
* Challenges of caste politics -> caste-based conflicts and hierarchies created tension
* –>Handling competing aspirations and demands
* –>Still seeking to advocate their political agenda of nation-building
* Evolution -> INC adapted to the changing circumstances
* –>Strategy and approach changed in accordance with the political context
* –>It was the party’s dynamic involvement with caste that allowed it to thrive despite it divisional quality
Successes of INC social justice agenda
*Mobilization of diverse groups -> Gandhi and Nehru were successful in gaining the support of diverse and marginalised groups within society
* –> Sought to unify people form different religions, castes and class
* –> Sought to end social injustice and discrimination
* Empowerment of marginalised communities
* –> INC advocated for Dalits rights and fought for their social improvement
* –> Wanted to end caste discrimination and untouchability through social and economic reforms
* –> Improved awareness of Dalits -> joined the nationalist struggle and actively involved themselves in the freedom struggles
* Promotion of women’s right
* –> Voices and fought for women participation in the freedom struggle
* –> Encouraged their participation in protests and demonstrations
* –> Demanded gender equality in different spheres e.g., education and employment
* Farmers and workers -> fought alongside farmers demanding fair prices and land revenue reduction
* –> Tried to protect farmers rights against exploitative landlords
* –> Focused on improving working conditions -> feeling seen and represented; boycotts and protests were organised in the name of worker’s grievances
* Promotion of inclusive nationalism -> wanted to transcend the divisions created in religion, caste and gender
* –> INC was perpetuating the image of a united India, emphasising equality opportunities and rights
* –> Created a national identity, fostering solidarity despite the existence of various smaller communities -> facilitated greater participation levels in the anti-colonial struggle
* Contribution to policy reforms -> agenda addressed social inequalities
* –> Proposed legislation like the abolition of the zamindari system, education promotion and safeguarding peasant’s rights
* –> Focused on alleviating the hardship many marginalised communities faced, seeking societal improvement and improved living standards in the UP
Failures of INC social justice agenda
*Limited reach and impact -> efforts and reforms were confined to predominately urban areas
* –> Maj. of population inhabited rural areas -> not signif. addressed or focused on
* –> Grassroots rarely felt the benefits of the social justice reforms implemented by Congress
* –> Accessibility and benefits were hard to ascertain marginalised groups
* Internal divisions and conflicts -> affected efficient implementation of agenda
* –> Ideologies and approaches were rarely in accordance with one another - conflicts and disagreements
* –> Internal divisions undermined unified efforts to achieve successful social improvement- met with constant compromise
* Limited success regarding caste discrimination -> INC was unsuccessful in their attempts to upfit marginalised sectors of society
* –>Caste discrimination remained a signi. Issue
* –> Social hierarchy that permeated the Indian population was so entrenched -> remained a signif. bulwark against implementing social justice agenda
* Issues with overcoming gender disparities -> progress was slow and sluggish, despite their advocation for women’s rights and involvement in the freedom struggle
* –> Socio-cultural barrier impeded gender success -> conservative social norms and limited education access was a key factor inhibiting female empowerment and involvement
* Limited impact on economic inequality -> their attempts to improve working conditions and pay failed to resolve eco. disparities
* –> Resolving problems likes land reforms/ownership were complex and entrenched - faced many difficulties trying to undo these exploitive cornerstones of Indian politics
* Challenges with inclusive nationalism -> constantly advocating for it did not meant it was a coherent vision
* –> Religious and communal tensions hindered a nationalist vision - bridging these divides did not often incur success
* –> Tensions and violence often persisted
* –> Faced with a struggle in actually getting inclusive nationalism recognised.
Debates on federalism
* Centralisation vs decentralisation -> key concern was how power should be organised
* –> Divisions over power to be concentrated at the centre or to devolve to the provincials
* –> Defenders of central authority -> strong at the core to ensure a unified approach against colonialism
* –> Defenders of devolution -> wanted greater autonomy at local levels, allowing for more effective decision-making
* –> INC balanced these two competing demands
* Centre and provinces -> INC was faced with reconciling relationships within the UP
* –> Advocated for self-governance within the provinces, but struggled against the competing interests within provinces
* –> Debated and arguments over resource allocation and government structures -> diverse aspirations within provinces showcased the problems INC was tasked with
* –> INC made attempts to overcome these challenges
* Cooperative federalism vs competitive federalism ->
*–> (a) collaborative approach; central and provincial govt. work in unison to achieve common goals
* –> (b) competition between govt. bodies
* –> INC -> wanted a collaborative approach, but often navigated the tensions bought about through (b)
Joya Chatterji (post-indep)
* Factors which led to the rise of opposition against Congress
* Strategies opposition powers adopted to challenges Congress dominance
Factors which led to the rise of opposition against Congress
* Factionalism
o Leaders with their own agendas were dividing Congress, forcing into into factions rather than a united party
o E.g., pro-Soviet faction or the centrist faction or the pro-China faction
o Not only was the leadership undermined, but support waned
* Failure to help the masses
o Overlooked the needs of the masses by prioritising on political issues
o Poverty, unemply., and social ineq. were rampant and faith, espc. within the young, towards existing insit. was fading
o E.g., CPI(M) gained support where Congress failed; the WC and peasants flocked to this party which championed land reforms, social justice and worker’s rights.
* Rise of opposition
o Alternative political parties were capitalising on the opportunities presented to gain power through Congress’s inefficiency.
o CMP(M) and Bangla Congress further undermined Congress in the 1960s because of this
o CMPI(M) grew support amongst the WC and peasants
o Bengal Congress focused on linguistic and cultural identity which was a big area of contestation following the Language movement
* Political instability
1960s were rocky political time for leadership regarding government changes and the President’s Rule
o Instability led to a loss of confidence in the current leadership and a clear violation of democratic values/insti.
o Congress was failing to provide stable and effective governance which left people looking for alternatives - legitimacy and power was waning.
* Economic underdevelopment
o Poverty and unemployment was widespread as Congress had failed to promote stable economic dvlp.
o Industrial sector had suffered a lack of attention .: Bengal’s economic competitiveness had fallen
o CPI(M), like many other opposition parties, capitalized on Congress’s failure and population disillusionment by furthering their own agendas which publicised Congress inadequacy
E.g., state-led industrialisation and economic dvlp. was a key advocation for this party
Strategies opposition powers adopted to challenges Congress dominance
* Land reforms and agrarian policies
o CPI(M) emphasised these two areas to cultivate support amongst rural
o Demanded land to redistributed .: landless peasants would not be exploited by large landowners
o Improved working conditions with wages was another area
* Mobilizing the WC
o CMPI(M) mobilised the WC who, as a marginalised community, were the largest demographic who felt ignored and harmed by Congress’s failures and inadequacies
o Organised protests and strikes on a large scale - not only capitalising on Congress’s failure to cater to this demographic, but using it to further their own agenda and consolidate their political position
* Appeals to linguistic and cultural identity
o This was a key area of focus for the Bangla Congress
o Championed greater autonomy and the recognition of Bengali as a national language
o Their support base grew from those who saw the Congress Party as suppressing their linguistic and cultural identity
o Congress’s failures was the diff. of opposition parties prev. failing to gain. Foothold into Bengal politics, to gaining signif. influence by fragmenting the political envir. which prevented Congress domination.
* Coalitions
o Opposition parties challenges Congress dominance by forming coalitions
o E.g., the United Front 1967 - various parties like Bangla Congress and CPI(M)
Won a maj. in state elections allowed them to form a govt. in Bengal
Signif. indicator that the political landscape within this region was changing
* Protests and demonstrations
o Centred around issues where Congress had failed - bringing public awareness to the inadeq. of the current political landscape
o E.g., eco. ineq., political corruption and social injustice
o Increased pressure on Congress to address the grievances of their people despite their interal divisions
