PAKISTAN

Question 1

Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal
* Pakistan’s challenges
* Pakistan’s achievements
* Trajectory factors

Answer 1

Portray Pakistan, not in a simplistic or negative manner, but as a country whose endured various challenges

Challenges
* Political issues -> frequent government changes, military rule and political instability
* Poses an ongoing challenge for democratic institutions and govt. structure -> cannot estb. a stable nor effective political system
* Socio-Religious Challenges
* Complex threats of religion, society and politics have shaped Pakistan’s trajectory
* Sectarianism, religious extremism and intolerance consistently undermine social cohesion and stability
* Suffered difficulty with mitigating diversity and promoting inclusivity
* Economic Challenges -> partition and the Raj left Pakistan with poverty, inequality and underdevelopment
* Regional and International Challenges -> aftermath of changing geopolitical dynamics and regional conflicts influenced Pakistan’s position on the global stage
* Cultural challenges -> faced obstacles trying to reconcile conservatism and secularism and modernity
* Reconceptualization of social norms, gender relations and human rights

Issues of governance
* Democratic Transitions -> regular military interference in politics and government
* Eroded democratic norms and diminished civilian control over govt. through the suppression of political dissent
* Faced with challenges in trying to estb. and indep. judiciary and free press; cornerstones of a democratic system -> unable to institute them
* Military -> powerful influence over govt. decisions and structures which allows them to shape Pakistan’s foreign and security policies
* Attempts at striking a balance between civilian and military power is an issue P has struggled with since 1947
* Overbearing and powerful military is a bulwark against a democratic Pakistan
* Corruption -> effectiveness and efficiency of govt. has been undermined by corruption at various levels of government
* E.g., lack of transparency and accountability, and ROL being held in little regard
* Regional Disparities -> parts of Pakistan have suffered greater discrimination and marginalisation than other parts
* Unequal division of resource allocation, unfair political representation and limited development opportunities
* Manifested in social discord and ineffective governance -> regions have conflicting and different interest, demands and priorities

Pakistan’s achievements
* Nation-building, economic development, and social progress
* Nation-building
* Gained indep. from Britain in 1947 -> estb. a new state with indiv. political; and administrative institutions
* Reforms -> adopted numerous constitutions, showing an effort to institute a democratic govt, promote ROL and protect HR
* Pakistan also recognised the judiciary as an independent institution
* Economic Development -> agricultural and industrial sectors have grown alongside infrastructural and transportation development
* Education and Social Progress -> universities and research centres
* Attempts to increase accessibility
* Consider P improvement regarding social indicators like poverty alleviation and healthcare; recog. challenges still remain

Factors that shaped its trajectory as a nation-state
* Historical legacy -> the role of British colonial rule
* Fund. altered the regions politics, economy and society
* Played a pivotal role in creating nationalism, communalism, and new identities
* Also exacerbated the process of partition
* Two-Nation Theory -> the concept of a Muslim identity emerged out of the Indian freedom struggle
* After partition -> directed Pakistan’s political discourse and influenced following govt. policies
* Political leadership and ideology -> visions of figures like Jinnah and the Muslim League
* Influence Pakistan’s political and governance structures
* Communalism -> diversity and communalism signif. shaped Pakistan’s trajectory
* Faced with issues of religious diversity -> created problems in resolving ethnic and sectarian tensions
* These challenges have influenced politics and the stability of the nation
* Economic challenges -> faced economic ineq., rising unemployment, poverty
* Impacted the social and political dynamics within Pakistan

Question 2

Ram Guha
* Pakistan’s failure

Answer 2

• Pakistan’s failure
• Military rule
• Pakistan’s history shows a series of dictators, whom of which usurped power from govt. and shown blatant disregard for any democratic values or institutions
• Religious and ethnic conflict
• Religious minorities have endured persecution and discrimination -> democratic isnti. were always undermined by sectarian violence and ethnic tensions
• Prevention of unity and inclusivity merely alienated and polarized society, due to a persistent issue which needed direct action and control since it seems rooted in South Asian history
• Key weakness to democracy which was not addressed
• Weak political institutions
• These bodies are often a playground of nepotism, corruption and favouritism - how could the general public ever put their faith in a system underpinned by such qualities?
• No surprise that both parl. and judiciary have been ineffective and weak - failure to make progress and have faith of the people
• Political instability
• Govt. have been consistently overthrown by military coups
• Elections, a feature of democracy, are synonymous with violence and fraud
• Absence of civic culture
• Low public engagement comes from a lack of trust between govt. and the public - no bodies to check or hold officials to account

Question 3

Ian Talbot
* Pt. I. The historical inheritance
* Colonial rule, authoritarianism and regional history in North-west India
* The Pakistan Movement: its dynamics and legacies
* Picking up the pieces: Pakistan, 1947-49
* What strategies and polies did Pakistan leaders pursue to address challenges?
* The destruction of Pakistan’s democracy and unity.
* What lead to the breakup of Pakistan?
* Pakistan politics since 1988.
* Pakistan politics, 1988-93

Answer 3

Pt. I. The historical inheritance.
o Pakistan: land, society and economy
* What are the economics challenges Pakistan faced?
 Agricultural economy
* Limited invest. In this sector declined output .: inflation and food shortages were common
 Limited industrialisation
* The absence of adequate power supply and transportation inhibited Pakistan’s ability to industrialise
* The underdevelopment of this sector reduced employment opportunities and increased import dependence
 Low literacy rates
* Prevented economic growth and development -> a skilled population was fund. to innovation and progress
 BOP crisis
* Debt trap resulted from an overreliance on foreign aid -> limited foreign exchange reserves
 Corruption
* Mismanagement of resources resulted from poor govt. and decreased trust in govt. insti. and reduced foreign invest.
 Political instability
* Negative impact on the; fluctuation in leadership and policies have caused disruption and prevented long-term planning
 Energy Crisis
* Severely impacted the economy; insufficient power supply .: demand cannot be met

o Colonial rule, authoritarianism and regional history in North-west India
* How did authoritarianism emerge in the region?
 British suppression of dissent e.g., censorship, imprisonment, torture
* The British created a bureaucratic system to maintain control - was not destroyed after indep, but the new Pakistan elite inherited this exploitative machine
 Circumstance
* The identity of Pakistan based on religion, but their failure to create strong civic nationalism led to domination by a narrow elite
* Religion was used a political tool to consolidate power and hierarchies
 Military
* Involvement in politics has undermined legitimacy and democratic institutions
 External
* CW - military and economic assistance was provided by the US to contain the spread of communism
* Simply consolidated the military’s position and normalised authoritarian tendencies

• What is the legacy has authoritarianism left in Pakistan?
   Military Rule
• Ongoing periods of military rule has presented the military as the ultimate arbiter of power
• Signif. impacted Pakistani political culture - necessity to prevent corrupt politicians from becoming too powerful
   Political Instability
• Govt. have been overthrown by coups or forced resignations - undermined any democratic values and institutions within Pakistan’s political culture
• Created assumptions that stability is only possible through authoritarian rule
   Centralisation of power
• The civilian assumption politicians are corrupt was born from the culture of patronage and favouritism that dominates the political system
• Power in the hands of a few has seen many using privilege positions to benefit themselves
   Suppression of dissent
• The lack of tolerance of opposition has created fear amongst many - unlikely to speak out against those within positions of power due to inevit. retribution
• The loss of diverse opinions and ability to express oneself has detrimentally affected accountability and transparency
   CONC - the deep rooted culture of authoritarianism has prevented democracy to take root, despite periods of democratic rule; does not have the institutions to properly prevail
• How was authoritarianism affected Pakistan’s present politics?
   Weak democratic institutions
• Authoritarianism has prevented the effective function of democratic institutions; the centralisation of power has encroached on their system of checks and balances, meaning accountability is absent
   Political polarisation
• Consensus over important issues is difficult due to the various political parties representing respective ideologies or regions
• Hampered collaboration and created a polarised political environment
   Military dominance
• The poor reputation of civilian politicians, as ineffective and weak, is partly due to their failure to bring stability and effective governance. But the military’s shadow over politics as suggested they are the only ones capable of ensuring security in Pakistan
• Hard assumption to shake
   Rule of law
• The concentration of power in the hands of a few elite questions the legitimacy of this system, but more so implied accountability is absent due to those in power being allowed to act with impunity
• The judiciary is also criticised as being both ineffective and weak; incredibly dangerous to the democratic values and norms which need to be upheld
• Indiv, due to fear, do not express their views and opinions or protest; core function of democracy
• What political and social movements have unfolded in Pakistan?
   The Bhutto Era
• Bhutto founded the Pakistan People’s Party
• Witnesses various movements emerge in Pakistan
• Socialist and leftist movements
   The Zia Era
• Military coup empowered General Zia-ul-Haq
• More conservative interpretation of Islam which he sought to implement through polices
• Alongside other Islamist movements during the time
   The Green Revolution
• 1960s-70s saw attempts to modernise Pakistan’s agriculture sector e.g., introducing new technologies to improve productivity
• Reduce dependency on food imports
   The Balochistan insurgency
• Baloch people demand for greater autonomy; separatist movement in Pakistan’s Balochistan province
• What caused these movements?
   Religious identity
• The rise of Islamism has signif. impacted these movements
• E.g., movements which have attempted to estb. a Islamic state based on Islamic law
• Role of sectarianism -> the difference sects of Islam have been in conflict with one another
• The country itself inhabits as broad and complex religious landscape .: various religious minorities
• It is a source of conflict, but also a powerful mobilising factor which can drive movements
   Economic interests
• Suffering from poverty, income ineq. and unemply -> reasons for social and political activism
• Labour activism within Pakistan has seen workers mobilising themselves for better working conditions, higher wages
• The ineq. and eco. exploitation has added to the influence of socialist ideologies
• Land reform movements oppose a small elite having a monopoly over land; call for redistribution
• Human rights movement have also bought awareness to the unfair eco. exploitation, encouraging movements
   Cultural values
• Rise of nationalism has been key in deciding the country’s political trajectory
• Role of language movements, seeking the recognition and protection of respective identities

o The Pakistan Movement: its dynamics and legacies
* What factors contributed to the emergence of the Pakistan Movement?
 Economic
* Unequal economic dvpl. between Hindu-maj. and Muslim-maj. regions of India
* The Muslim-maj. areas of India, AIML -> less dvlped; felt they were being targeted and marginalised
* Believed improved conditions would be possible with a separate homeland
* British colonial policies
* Deindustrialisation was detrimental to India’s traditional industries like textile, in favour of British products
* Disproportionally worse for Muslim-maj. areas who had a larger textile industry
* Economic nationalism
* AIML argued they could develop their regions more effectively than the current administration, away form the constraints of Hindu-dominated politics.
 Political
* Muslim identity
* The desire to preserve Muslim culture and identity became a need as the movement grew -> in a Hindu-dominated India Muslim rights could never be safeguarded
* Hindu-Muslim tensions
* The movement form a desire to a need was exacerbated by the tension and conflict between these two communities
* AIML believed the Hindu Congress was marginalising their interests and demands
* A separate state would be fund. to protect the Muslim minority
* Representation
* Unfair representation in central govt. means their interests were ignored and their power curbed
* A separate state would give them the political autonomy to protect their rights and develop their regions
* British colonial policies
* ‘divide and rule’ policies exploited the historical tensions between these communities to serve their own interests; retaining political control over the subcontinent, only possible if they divided the opposition
 Threat of Hindu domination
* Congress
* Dominant force and likely successor to the Raj - but Muslims felt the large Hindu composition was dangerous to the interests of Muslims
* Muslim political marginalisation
* Interests were overlooked and this wasn’t changing
* Communal tensions
* Rising tensions were made worse through respective leaders stating violence was inevit. due to the incompatibility of Hindus and Muslims - leading to more violence
* Hindu-maj. provinces
* AIML argued Muslims would be vulb. in Hindu dominated regions - needed to safeguard their interests to protect themselves

• Who are the key figures and organisations?
   AIML
• Main focus - separate electorates for Muslims; increase their political influence
• Shift from the desire to protect their interests to a separate Muslim state
• INC and the Hindu Mahasabha opposed this
   Jinnah
• Vocalised the discrimination and marginalisation Muslims faced was the fault of Hindu India
• To secure cultural, religious and political identity -> needed their own separate state
• Skilled negotiator; effectively navigate the complex and changing political envir. with Britain and INC
• Powerful orator inspired a board support movement consisting of Muslims in South Asia
• What were the tensions within the Pakistan movement?
   The Role of Islam
• Conflict between secular and religious visions of Pakistan
• Some wanted a separate homeland to live their life in accordance to Islam
• Others took a pragmatic approach; a separate homeland existing as a secular state but with a Muslim maj.
   The Status of Minority Communities
• Concerns over how minorities like Sikhs and Hindus was be treated, by solely focusing on the welfare of Muslims
   The Role of regional identities
• Feared the loss of cultural diversity as the creation of Pakistan would unify several regions, potentially undermining regional identities
• Others were in favour of a strong national identity
   Relationship with India
• Some believed Pakistan would force India to award Muslims with the respect and influence needed to create a diplomatic relationship
• Others argued this power would allow them to challenge Indian hegemony in the region
• This rivalry continue to exist after indep.
• What tactics and strategies were used by the movement?
   Constitutional politics
• Negotiations with the British
• Jinnah capitalised on his legal background to secure political concessions from the British e.g., securing separate electorates for Muslims
• Worked in collaboration with the British to achieve their aims
• Advocacy in International Forums
• Muslims leaders attended conferences like the Round Table to keep pushing for the creation of a separate Muslim state
• Legal challenges
• AIML challenges the Government of India Act 1935; failed to represent Muslim interests
• Challenges the INC position as the sole representative of Indians; Muslims needed and deserved their own political identity
• Political mobilisation
• Organisation of mass rallies and marches raised awareness about the AIML and demand for Muslim state
   Direct action
• Came later on in the movement -> strikes and protests increased alongside the rise of tensions and communal violence between communities
• In response to INC opposition to the idea of Pakistan; interpreted this as an attempt the undermine AIML legitimacy
• How did the movement shape the country’s national identity?
   Movement itself presented Muslims as a separate community, facing marginalisation and discrimination under colonial rule, their own political identity was essential to the safeguarding of Muslim interests and rights
   New national identity was perceived by Iqbal and Jinnah as a way to unite Muslims in South Asia
   Military dominance

o Picking up the pieces: Pakistan, 1947-49
* What challenges did Pakistan face in its early years as a new state? (and govt. response)
 Economic dislocation
* Refugees -> partition caused an influx; Pakistan needed to cope with the millions of impoverished and homeless refugees
* Economy inherited from British colonial rule was weak and underdeveloped
* Industrial capacity was extremely limited, further their agriculture sector has been severely weakened from British deindustrialisation, explaining their overwhelming reliance on exporting jute and cotton
* Infrastructure was poor -> inefficient transpiration networks
* Reliance on foreign aid created BOP crisis, worsened by limited import earnings
* Currency devaluation and inflation followed
* Political instability exacerbated eco challenges
* Failed to institute an effective investment and economic plan due to frequent leadership changes
* Corruption and mismanagement further hindered EG
Political instability
* Military coups
* Undermine the stability - difficult to implement long term policies or engage in economic planning to improve the socio-eco. situation
* Conflicting agendas and priorities
* Undermined ROL - loss of accountability and transparency; corruption and mismanagement
* Foreign relations -> instability hindered their ability to estb. strong and stable relations with other nations
 Social unrest
* Political instability
* Country suffered four military coups within their first 50 years
* Economic problems and marginalisation of political parties
* Ethnic and Regional Tensions
* Diverse population has caused conflicts between diff. communities
* Sectarianism and Religious Extremism
* Social unrest has led two both these issues; loss of lives
* Political radicalisation
* Parties have used violence or intimidation to achieve their objectives - law and order have broken down and erosion of democratic values
 Legacy of colonialism exacerbated it; weak eco and religiously divided society
* Economic consq.
* The exploitation of natural resources from India for British benefit, tied with deindustrialisation to prevent the growth of Indian markets, caused the economy inherited by Pakistan to be weak and lacking in infrastructure
* This weakness, coupled with the shadow of military dominance and social unrest was the background to mass instability
* Social and cultural change
* Imposition of British culture eroded local customs and traditions, this created a loss of identity
* The demands for a Muslim state based on their own pol. identity was certainly a result of British rule, because their purposefully marginalised their sense of belonging, it is understandable that the Pakistan movement has so much support as that demographic felt cheated.
* Political marginalisation
* Denying political representation for those within a region estranged the population and the ruling elites
* Lack of trust in govt. - at the same time, INC and AIML were negotiating to achieve indep., at the grassroots, this may have been interpreted as a sign of betrayal
* Communal tensions
* Divide and rule was possible one of the worst things the British inflicted on India; at the time, it was to consolidate British rule, but the slaughter and mass rape that unfolded by playing on these tensions in unforgiveable and outrageous
* Pitting these communities against one another for political gain has been normalised in South Asian politics too - legacy of colonialism has not been uprooted, but modernised and incorporated into these new inep. states
* How indep. are they really?

• What strategies and polies did Pakistan leaders pursue to address challenges?
   Creating a new national identity
• Islam
• Pakistan was suppose to be an Islamic state, promotion values and traditions aligning with their religion
• Different interpretations resulted in stagnation of an overall national identity
• Urdu
• Attempts to institute Urdu as the national language of Pakistan
• Created tensions with Bengali-speaking East Pakistan; contributed to the creation of Bangladesh in 1971
• Economic dvlp
• Launched multiple dvlp. projects to forge a new identity based on eco. dvlp. -> consensus that EG and modernisation could progress Pakistan and allow them to enter a new era
• E.g., the Green Revolution
   New constitution
• The Objective Resolution
• 1949 - emphasised Pakistan’s commitment to Islam as the founding tenant of Pakistan’s identity
• Stated their intention to create a democratic, federal state
• Debates
• The drafting of a new constitution suffered many controversies between leaders e.g.., the role Islam would take in the country’s governance
• Constitution 1956
• Pakistan was established as an Islamic Republic -> creation of a parliamentary system of govt., provision of fundamental rights e.g., freedom of religion and speech
   Tensions between centralisation and regional diversity; views over how P should look.
• The diverse communities and regions existing in Pakistan
• Power and resource distribution
• Between federal govt. and provinces; arguments over greater provincial autonomy or a stronger federal govt.
• Movements and parties
• Awami League in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) advocated for greater regional autonomy
• Contributed to the creation of Bangladesh

Pt. II. The destruction of Pakistan’s democracy and unity.
o The destruction of democracy in Pakistan
* 1958 military coup; PM Feroz Khan Noon was overthrown by General Ayub Khan
 Modernised Pakistan through economic and social reforms alongside the suppression of civil liberties
* 1969 - Ayub Khan was overthrown by General Yahya Khan
 Mass political instability .: his plans to carry out free/fair elections did not materialise
 1970 elections led to an Awami League victory - refusing to accept defeat; civil war and the break up Pakistan 1971
* **1971-77 **- military rule perpetuated a regime of political instability, eco. stagnation and civil liberty suppression
 Generals Zia-ul-Haq and Yahya Khan eroded democracy through estb. islamic policies at the law
* 1977 - Zia-ul-Haq’s regime
 Liberalisation of the economy and advocated for private enterprise; benefit of the elites and signif. increased income ineq.
 The growth of extremist groups in Pakistan rose due to his support of Afghan Mujahideen when Afghanistan was being invaded by the Soviet
 Undermined democracy and contributed to the general societal deterioration
o The growth of extremism
*Ideological foundations
 Pakistan was envisioned as a democratic and secular state
 The lack of consensus between leaders resulted in a failure to create a national identity
 Both their constitution and political system followed Western and Islamic ideas
* Cold War
 Involved in the training and arming of Islamist militants in Pakistan
 Over time, they turned their arms against Pakistan state and engaged in acts of terrorism
* Political impact
 1980s regime under General Zia-ul-Haq introduced Islamic punishments
 Sought to consolidate his power, but also contributed to extremism
* Economic and social factors
 Poverty and inequality created mass disillusionment an anger; espc. after being promised their situation would improve with a Muslim state
 Became a way to express and revolt against their conditions

o Solon among the subalterns
* What was Jinnah’s vision for Pakistan?
 Desired a secular Muslim state that provide equal rights for all citizens
 Modern and progressive model; a constitutional democracy with an indep. judiciary and elected parliament
 Education and eco. dvlp. were the foundations for a prosperous nation
 Advocated for pluralism and tolerance - wanted a peaceful existence of diff. religions anc cultures
* Then why couldn’t he do this in India? - see other notes; colonialism, divide and rule, communal violence, INC tension, British
 Undermined by military dominance and sectarian violence which has followed Pakistan’s creation
* What undermined Jinnah’s vision for Pakistan?
 Internal divisions
* Factionalism - Muslim League was divided over their conceptions of Pakistan e.g., conservative and religiously-orientated vs Jinnah’s secular and democratic state
* Relationships between leaders were tense e.g. Jinnah, Liaquat Ali Khan and Khawaja Nazimuddin navigated a difficult relationship
* Both their personal ambitions a with and ideas often put them in conflict with one another
* Failure to presented a united front; undermined their influence in negotiations
 Legacy of colonialism
* Artificial boarders
* Indian subcontinent was carved up for separate provinces, defined along either religious or linguistic lines
* Allowed communalism and sectarianism to build up - undermined Jinnah’s idea of an inclusive Pakistan
* Centralised state
* Power was concentrated in the hands of a few under British rule - after Pakistan’s indep., this system was inherited, not dismantled .: their new values of democracy and inclusivity was hard to estb. within such an exclusionary system
* Economy
* British used Indian economy to develop their own, whilst undermining theirs to hold them in a subordinate position
* Inherited a legacy of underdevelopment and dependency - prevented them from resolving their eco. problems as the framework they operated in was meant to weaken them
* Thus, remained a high dependence on foreign aid and exporting raw materials
 Influence of external powers
* British Empire
* B.E initially showed support for the concept of Pakistan in an attempt to maintain their own strategic interests
* Post-partition showed B.E to be neglectful; no attempt to help create a new stable and efficient economy
* Continued to ensure their own interests; maintaining military bases in Pakistan
* US
* Capitalised on Pakistan’s strategic location - their provision of economic and military assistance was provided on the basis Pakistan supported US policies
* Direct conflict with Jinnah’s conception of a free and democratic state
* India
* Continued to support separatist movements and rivals of Pakistan like Iran and Afghanistan
* CONC - Jinnah’s idea for Pakistan has been clouded due to the rise of Islamic fundamentalism and marginalisation of democratic values

Pt. III.: Things fall apart
o From Bhutto to Zia.
* What lead to the breakup of Pakistan?
 Political factors
* Pakistan was the accumulation of many diverse regions, but the govt. failed to accommodate them
* West Pakistan’s ruling elite monopolised the political and economic systems, ignoring East Pakistan; sense of estrangement
* There issues weren’t being addressed; corruption, nepotism and no accountability
 Economic Factors
* Ineq -> West Pakistan was becoming more developed and industrialised, whereas East Pakistan was remaining largely agricultural
* Deprivation through policies like export taxed on jute (main exporter for EP)
 Social factors
* Differences between cultures, as we have seen with the break up of India, under tensions and unfair conditions can amount into a powerful movement
* The linguistic and cultural differences came into play - the West was predominately Punjabi-speaking vs East spoke Bengali
* Urdu being declared the national language side-lined East Pakistanis
* Generated momentum for a language movement
 Regional tensions
* 1970 GE, Awami League, victory saw the military and political elites refuse to concede victory and was met with protests
* Military response

• What challenges did Bhutto face?
   Weak economy
• Eco. crisis contributed to the break up of Pakistan because Bhutto inherited a weak eco in 1970s, post war with India
• Attempts to nationalise industries in line with a socialist policy still failed to address the underlying causes
• Productivity and investment declined, whilst inflation and unemply. rose
   Political Instability
• Political authoritarianism -> dissolved the National Assembly in 1972 and imposed a one-party state
• Repression of political dissent e.g., torturing opposition leaders
• What happened under General Zia ul-Haq’s regime?
   Pakistan became very Islamist
• Saw Islam as a unifying force to overcome the ethnic and sectarian divisions
• The introduction of measures attempted to consolidate Islamic values
• Sharia Law 1979 received a split reception
• Conservative Islamic groups supported this decision, but more secular and liberal factions emphasised its threat to liberties and human rights
   Political repression
• Government was military dominated and suspended Pakistan’s constitution
• Engaged in strict censorship laws to control the media
• What happened in the 1988 GE?
   Interpreted as a new era -PPP won a maj. of seats in the National Assembly
   Programme of democracy, HR and social justice

o People’s power: hopes and impediments
* What were the expectations people had of PM Benazir Bhutto?
 The platform she ran on gave the assumption she would usher in a new democratic era; symbol of change and progression
 Liberation from the problems that existed under General Zia ul-Haq’s military dictatorship
 Address the dire economic situation

• Why did the military retain influence?
   Democratically elected did not undo the history of military influence in the region
   Military had been a key component of Pakistan’s foreign and security policy e.g., their relationship with the Inter-Services Intelligence
   Political opposition from more conservative factions prevented her from asserting civilian control over the military
   Potential ally -> alliances with groups was essential to maintain her power e.g., military
• What were the economic development challenges?
   Debt
• Incurred heavy debt from taking loans to finance military spending and resolve the BOP crisis
• BB was unsuccessful in negotiating with lenders to reduce this burden
   Lack of infrastructure
• Current transportation and infrastructure was signif. underdeveloped
• Offset foreign investment which reduced job opportunities
• Political opposition and red tape prevented her infrastructure projects like new roads and power plants
   Successful -> initiative that privatized state-owned enterprises
• Improved efficiency and reduced govt. debt
• What was the role of the military in post-Zia Pakistan?
   The challenges Bhutto faced led her to rely on military support; political instability, economic difficulties and social unrest
   Senior positions were filled by military officers e.g., national security and foreign affairs advisers
• Why were there ethnic and sectarian tensions?
   Federal govt. authority
• Regional political movements were challenging the federal govt.
• Those within the Punjab and Sindh wanted greater autonomy, claiming ethnic and linguistic identities as reason for greater influence
• These movements created tension between communities within provinces and federal govt.
   Sectarian violence
• Sunni and Shia Muslims -> growing hostility, exacerbated by outside forces e.g. Iran and Saudi Arabia
• These states endowered extremist groups in Pakistan with funding and support
• What positive developments were there?
   Expansion of civil society
• Women’s Development Bank; provision of loans for female entrepreneurs
• Consolidation of the ROL and estb. HR Commission of Pakistan
• CON - success wld require consensus and collaboration between Pakistan’s leaders / citizens to achieve a more prosperous future
• in detail, according to Ian Talbot’s book ‘Pakistan: a Modern History,’ what positive developments were there under Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto?

Pt. IV Islam changes everything?
o Ever-decreasing circles: Pakistan politics since 1988.
* What was the period of democratic experimentation?
 Achievements
* Civil Liberties restoration
* Freedom of speech and assembly -> improved political participation and dialogue in Pakistan
* Indep. Judiciary
* The power exercised by the executive branch was under check
* Ability to assert this authority was originally within the military’s remit
* Press Freedom
* A more open and critical media is fundamental to democratic health; holding govt. account and informing the citizenry
* Women’s rights
* Socially elevating women and protecting them e.g., Women’s Development Programme focused on combatting gender discrimination and violence
* Local government elections
* Improved grassroots participation in political process .: provided the platform to be involved in the decision-making process
 Instability and corruption
* Political instability
* Military continued to undermine democratic govt.
* Overt and covert influence over decisions made
* Corruption
* Public trust was precarious at best, but the spread of corruption into all sectors of society severely damaged government reputation
* Undermined economic growth
* Ethnic Tensions
* Pakistan was divided along ethnic and linguistic lines .: tensions between these communities led to violence
* Economic challenges
* Large debt, inflation BOP crisis undermined the govt. to effectively resolve the issues directly impacting their conditions
* Contributed to political instability
* Religious extremism
* The instability was a breeding ground for more extremist movements - created a conservative climate and greater minority intolerance
 Role of the military in undermining democracy
* Direct Intervention
* Often undermined govt. legitimacy of elected govt.
* Dissolved assemblies and imposed martial law
* Covert Influence
* Media control and election manipulation allowed them decide the political outcome
* Constitutional amendments
* Introduced various amendments to undermine elected govt, and consolidate military power
* E.g., eight amendment 1985 empowered the President of Pakistan with the ability to dissolve the National Assembly and dismiss the PM
* Role of intelligence agencies
* Opposition leader intimidation
* Support of extremist groups

• What was General Pervez Musharraf’s regime like?
   ‘enlightened moderation’
• Attempt to overcome extremism
• Believed the promotion of moderate Islam would stabilise the instability created by extremist groups and pacify them
   Economic policy
• Sought to liberalize the economy and promote EG e.g., Privatization Commission
• Controversial reception; rise in unemploy. vs fall in ineq. and increased EG
   Social policy
• Efforts to promote gender equality and reduce corruption
• e.g., the National Accountability Bureau; corruption investigation to persecute guilty officials
   Failed to overcome Pakistan’s structural issues
• Democratic institutions were weak from years of authoritarianism and they have struggled to overcome this

o Democracy restored? Pakistan politics, 1988-93
* What challenges existed during this period?
 Ethnic and sectarian tensions
* Differences have amassed to violence and conflict
 Economic instability
* Govt. used austerity and foreign aid to combat the unfavourable eco. conditions to stabilise economy
 Corruption
 Political instability
* Fragmented political landscape; different parties were vying for power
* What achievements were made during this period?
 Restoration of democracy
* This was a big achievement for a country plagued with military dominance and authoritarianism
* E.g., a decade of military rule under General Zia-ul-Haq
 Expansion of political freedoms
* Improved freedom of speech and press
 Economic liberalisation
 Military withdrawal
* Efforts were made to rescind their power
* **What was the role and strategies of the Pakistan Muslim League? **
 Opposition
* Sought to undermine the govt. e.g., protests, strikes
* Eagerly criticised the govt. relationship with the IMF
 Political
* Nawaz Sharif was the leader - sought to gain political power
* E.g., a coalition with the Islami Jamhoori Ittehad in 1998 elections; increased their seats in the National Assembly
 Economic policies
* In power - aim was to boost economic growth and reduce inflation e.g., tax cuts and infrastructure invest.