PARTITION AND INDEPENDENCE

Question 1

Sugata Bose and Jalal Ayesha
* Partition factors
* Partition consequences

Answer 1

Fight for Independence
* Revolt of 1857 -> results of rising discontent across social classes, not a spontaneous rebellion
* Result of resentment and anger against British rule; exploitation, cultural imperialism -> decimated their traditional institutions
* Bypassed religious and caste tensions; Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs
* Met with brutality and violence from British

Factors leading to the partition
* Religious divisions -> Hindus and Muslim tensions were growing; exacerbated by ‘divide and rule.’
* Foreground of communalism which encouraged the All-India Muslim League to demand a separate state
* Political Contestations -> power struggles between political groups
* Conflicting visions regarding the future of India .: failed to achieved consensus on constitutional agreements
* British negligence through a rash transfer of power to Indian National Congress and Muslim League
* Cultural differences -> historical differences in languages, customs and traditions were capitalised by respective political leaders to mobilise support for their demands
* Fear of being discriminated against in a Hindu/Muslim-maj. state fuelled partition support
* Colonial legacy -> implementation of communal representation in politics, separate electorates for Hindus and Muslims and divide and rule
* Created new identities and divisions which grew
* Violence -> riots, forced migration and mass killings created a climate of widespread mistrust and panic
* Buoyed the idea Hindus and Muslims could not harmoniously co-exist
* Leadership failure, both the colonial govt. and Indian, to contain violence
* Impact of WWII -> transformed the geopolitical landscape
* Signif. weakened colonial govt. and ability to manage political issues

Consequences of partition
* Migration and Violence -> left lasting impacts on the people’s memories and prevented communal relations or social cohesion in India and Pakistan
* Political Challenges and Governance Issues -> administrative and logistical challenges arose from the British religious division of India
* Needed to aid millions of refugees, estb. govt. and institute administrative structures
* Socio-Cultural Transformations -> moving to the country that corresponded to ones religious identity forced India, Pakistan, Muslims and Hindus to navigate new national identities
* Loss of tradition and cultural practices
* Economic Impacts -> tension over the division of economic resources like land, industries and trade routes
* Economic interdependencies were interrupted by the partition = loss if livelihood and trade disruption which negatively impacted eco. dvlp. in post-independent era
* Communal Tensions and Relations
* The partition polarised religious communities and the violence that followed entrenched this
* H -> analyses how the partition continues to contribute to communal relations between India and Pakistan

Question 2

Gyanesh Kudaisya and Tan Tai Yong
* Religious factors
* Political factors
* Socio-economic factors
* Social consequnces

Answer 2

• Religious factors leading to partition
• Religious identity and nationalism
  *Two distinct and separate identities between Hindus and Muslims was propagated by political leaders e.g., Jinnah
• –>E.g., manifested in a demand for a separate Muslim state to recognise their individual identity
• –>Perpetuated and inflamed the belief Hindus and Muslims had irreconcilable differences .: added to the violence in the assumption these were two entirely different communities which could never coexist peacefully
  Communal Riots and Violence
  *–> During the partition the violence escalated during to tension, uncertainty and fear
  *–> Power vacuum for political control was created by the British col. govt. leaving - rival groups were competing for this position by capitalising on divisions
• –>Violence resulted in millions displaced and fleeing to the newly drawn borders of India and Pakistan
• –>E.g., Lahore and Amritsar suffered large-scale killings which forced Hindus and Muslims to migrate
  Fear of minority status
• –> Signif. pushed the partition-> both communities feared being dominated by the other; had been told consistently they were incompatible and now violence was rising to unprecedented levels
• –> E.g., Muslims who resided in regions becoming part of India feared their livelihood in a Hindi-majority India
• –>This fear fuelled demands for a separate Pakistan
  Religious Beliefs and Practices
• –>Differences in religious beliefs and practices were exaggerated by external forces to increase animosity and tension
• –> Leaders and organisations were fund. in shaping the religious sentiments which dictate their communities’ attitudes to others
• –>E.g., advocating for states defined by religion
• –> Jinnah - Hindus and Muslims, at their core were so different, this was a justification for separate states for Muslims
  Political Mobilization on religious lines
• –> Political parties capitalised on religious identities to consolidate their support and political power
• –>This had greater impacts than intended - utterly polarised communities along religious lines which came to have disastrous conq. And social costs
• –>E.g., election campaign in 1946 saw the politicisation of religion through strong and divisionary rhetoric - increased communal tensions
  Role of colonial legacy
• –> Divide and rule - promoted communalism
• –> Exploited religious divides - created distrust and suspicion
• –> Easiest way to destroy your enemy, is to show them a mirror, and watch them destroy

Political factors leading to partition
Hindu-Muslim Communalism
* –>Demand for Pakistan as a separate state - perceptions about incompatibility
* –>Communal sentiment was perpetuated by political leaders
* –>E.g., Jinnah was demanding Pakistan through a ‘Two-Nation Theory’
* –>Emphs. the idea Muslims deserved a distinct nation because of their irreconcilable differences with Muslims
* –>Gained signif. support from regions where Muslims were a minority e.g., Bengal and Punjab
British colonial policy
* –>Divide and rule exacerbated issues between communities over time
*–> E.g., Morley-Minto Reforms 1909; separate electorates for Muslims
* –>Fostered this religious identity-based politics; leaders after them merely capitalised on what already existed
* –>Sense of division was crucial to the long-term demand of Pakistan
* Political ambitions of Indian Leaders
* –> INC vs AIML were competing for power; perpetuated diff. visions
* –>Gandhi and Nehru - united and secular India; equality between regions
* –> Jinnah - separate nation to safeguard Muslim political and eco. interests
Geographical factors
* –>Territories would be divided between India and Pakistan, but some regions would have mixed religious populations
* –>Punjab and Bengal was dominated by Hindus and Muslims; debates over how these regions would be divided became a contentious political issue
* –>Widespread violence, displacement and migration ultimately followed.

Socio-economic factors leading to partition
Economic Disparities
* –> Between diff. regions -> unequal distribution of wealth and resources created large socio-eco. grievances weren’t be resolved
* –> Bengal and Punjab were wealthy and prosperous regions, with mixed religious populations meant disputes over resources resulted in violence
* Land and Property Ownership
* –> How land would be divided between Hindus and Muslims in their separate states
* –> E.g., Punjab was a fertile agricultural land; violent clashes over rights of land ownership
Socio-Religious identities
* –> Perception of each others as two incompatible communities became deeply ingrained
*–> E.g., cultural practices and customs were deemed too different to co-exist
* –>Jinnah’s demand for separate nations based on religious lines became more attractive as this conceit was propagated

The hasty boundary-drawing process
Inadequate preparation
* –>British govt. was respb. for executing the partition, but pushed the process along faster because of political and logistical challenges
*–> E.g., partition announced on June 3rd 1947 and power transfer on August 15th 1947
* –> Resulted in mass panic and inefficient planning, consulting - patchy process at best
Demographic and Geographic Realities
* –>Made the issue of drawing new boundaries are significant challenge
* –>India was full of diversity and different communities which needed to be accounted for
* –>E.g., deciding the future of regions with mixed populations including Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs
* –>Outcomes were contested and arbitrary decisions resulted in mass confusions and anger
Political concerns and power dynamics
* –>Two competitors for power and influence in the new states of Pakistan and India
* –> Influenced which regions would be included in their state based on political interests
* –>British also joined in - sought an easy and hasty exit from a convoluted and complex dilemma, worsening with the rivalry between INC and AIML
Consequences of haste
* –>Disputes and arguments over territories, assets and citizenship
* –> E.g, princely states of Jammu and Kashmir inhibited a mixed population of Hindus and Muslims, .: their accession any new state was a topic of high contestation
* –> Migration process was hectic, violent and unlawful - mass suffering

Social consequences
Mass violence
* ->Communities who had historically coexisted begun to suffer unprecedent waved of violence by the hands of one another e.g., Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims
* –> Lahore became a part of Pakistan but a site of widespread bloodshed and protests
* –> Communal tensions were entrenched; unforgiveable acts of violence would leave a bitter aftertaste in the mouths of future generations.
* –> The social fabric of South Asia was altered forever
Forced Migration
*–> Largest migrations kwon to mankind - people fled to the country which would match their religious identity
* –> Societal impacts were immense e.g., millions of refugees were displaced, resulting in loss of property and livelihoods
* –> Forced assimilation and integration in the new society - the past’s and histories of peoples were eradicated
Identity and Nationalism
* –> Jinnah was successful - separate nations were created, based on religious lines
* –> Hindus resided in India, and Pakistan homed Muslims
*–> Emergence of new national identities and modernising existing identities
*–>E.g., Pakistan saw the Islam become the state religion within their process of nation-building
* –> One version of Islam became the prominent identity - ramifications for marginalised groups and religious minorities within Pakistan
* –> India - secularism and diversity were suppose to be the dominant principles underscoring their nation-building, but communalism and identity politics were the ST social consq. of the partition which inhibited this
Gender and Women’s Rights
* –>Women were amongst the most vulb. demographic who suffered horrific acts of injustice and violation e.g., rape, abduction and forced conversions
* –> Marginalised in their community thereafter
* –> Changes in gender roles - redefined and understood in the new nations
* –> Pakistan was influenced by Islam and the traditional gender roles

**Communal violence leading to mass migration and displacement **
Intercommunal Violence
* –> Partition erupted in mass violence between Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs - massacres
* –> Lahore, Amritsar and Delhi suffered horrific scales of violence against minority communities
Forced migration and displacement
* –> Rushed movement towards the borders so they could live within their religion
* –> Millions of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs were displaced from their homes and fled to the new boarders to ensure their safety
Humanitarian Crisis
*–> Millions of people suffered hardships -> refugees were pouring into regions which were already overcrowded
* –> Poverty was common - lack of water and healthcare
* –> Women suffered mass rapes
Long-term Social and Psychological Impact
* –> Breakdown of intercommunal relations as mistrust and hatred between communities became normalised

Challenges both govt. faced
Refugee Crisis and Displacement
* –> Massive displacement put pressure on the govt. to provide assistance and rehabilitation to millions of refugees
* –> Dominated and overwhelmed govt. structure -> lacked resources and infrastructure to adequately handle this issue
* –> Camps were overcrowded with poor sanitation facilitates
Communal tensions and violence
*–> Explosion of violence meant the govt. needed to address this issue by restoring law and order, in the wake of unbelievable crime
*–> Measures taken to restore peace and ensure vulb. communities were protected from further attacks
*–> Remained an on-going challenge, constantly cropping up despite years passing
Princely States
*–> Govt. faced with an arduous and complex issue of integrating these diverse states who have their own respective political and administrative systems into a new unified nations
* –>E.g., Hyderabad and Junagadh were ruled by Muslims, with Hindu populations, reluctant to join India
* –> Engaged in complex diplomatic discourse, negotiating trickly and multifaceted terms to co-opt these states into the India union
Economic Challenges
* –> Disruption of trade routes and industrial production was a threat to the welfare of the Indian economy
*–>E.g., India lost their key industrial centres like Karachi
o Forced to rebuild economic infrastructure and institute new trade routes to revitalise EG
Governance and Administrative Reorganisation
*–> Essential for a newly formed state - new administrative systems and mechanisms to overcome the consequences of the partition
* –> E.g., British Raj needed to be reformed to integrate the princely states and mitigate the diverse regions existing in India
* –> Fundamental to create a coherent and well-oiled machine to govern India
Refugees and IDP’s Rehabilitation
* –> Govt. was tasked with providing housing and economic opportunities as a form of social help
* –> Instilled rehabilitation programmes e.g., land allocation and eco. assistance but the scale of wreckage wreaked by the partition inhibited the effectiveness of govt. action

Question 3

Partition lecture

Answer 3

Transfer of Power and Declaration of Independence; 1930s/40s
* Pakistan indep. - 14th August 1947
* India - 15th August 1947

Constitutional Devolution I
* WWII - started changes in Britain and India; empire was unsustainable
* Attempt to keep an informal empire, but this failed

• Transfer of power in 1949
  o Culmination of a range of constitutional devolution of power to Indians
• Indian Councils Act 1909 = 1909 elections with restricted franchise (property)
   First increased the terms of self-govt.
   Largely unsatisfactory
   Separate electorate for Muslims
• Important element for the partition
• Government of India Act 1919 -> main stepping stone in the gradual development of self-governing institutions in India
   More substantial change
   Dyarchy: central govt. and provincial govt. -> division of respb. and powers
• some function (education, health) was under control of the provincial govt.
• But others like law and order remained under British control
• Representative and responsible govt.
• Elected govt. in the provinces with executive respb.
• Communal representation and reservations were retained e.g., Sikhs granted diff. electorates
   Philip Wood - beginning of parl. democracy in India
   Attempt to mobilise a wave of Raj support in India
   Followed by the non-cooperation movement

Constitutional Devolution II
* Communal Award 1932 - gave similar provisions to Muslims and oppressed classes
o Extended electorate to the untouchables - lowest caste amongst Hindus
o Gandhi opposed this; engaged on a fast -> large unrest in Congress
* Eventual agreement; reservations rather than separate electorates

• Govt. of India Act 1935
  o Lots of opposition to dyarchy, but this created signif. change
  o Inaugurated respb. govt. in provinces, but kept imperial control at centre (defence)
  o Fin. control was transferred from London to Delhi - more freedom
  o Limited extension of electorate - top 10% of population
  o Desire to attack mass bass of Congress
• 30-40% of seats in central legislature were reserved for the Princes .: Congress (x) maj.
• Separate electorates for Muslims and reserved seats for untouchables -> divided Congress’s mass base
  o Net effect: divert Congress to the provinces and keep imperial control at the centre
  o No plan for devolution or conceding power - Empires’ best attempt to retain India
• Elections were held in 1937 - Congress achieved massive landslide in the provinces
  o 5/11 provinces saw Congress win an absolute maj.
  o Formed ministries in 8 provinces
  o Single largest party in Bengal
  o Whilst fighting the British Raj, the congress itself was becoming the Raj and moving further away from the ideal of Gandhi’s Swaraj
  o Within months, WWII broke out

Events leading to Transfer of Power - Viceroy
* WWII - 1939 Viceroy of India declared war without consulting India opinion
o Congress opposed this very strongly
o For cooperation in war effort, Congress demanded
* (a) pledge of freedom after war
* (b) immediate national government at centre

o October in 1939 - Congress ministries resigned in protest ->
* Gave more space for Muslim League ministers as they remained - operation ability increased because Congress withdrew
 Had not done well in 1937 election .: used this opportunity to assert their power at the centre
 In 1940, Jinnah floated the ‘Two Nation’ theory and Pakistan Resolution by Muslim League in 1940
* Ayesha Jalal -> at this stage, the question was merely a hopeful aspiration

o WWII - wasn’t going well and was increasing pressure on India and British

Events leading to transfer of power - Tension postwar
* Britain accepted they would withdraw from India and the potential of partition
* Despite these concessions, neither Congress nor Muslim League were happy with these offers

• Cripps made two concessions
  o (a) Britain wld accept the idea of Indian indep. after the war
  o (b) unity was not a pre-condition; opened the door to questions of partition
  o However neither Congress nor Muslim League accepted proposed plan
  o Historians argue Churchill did not want the Cripps mission to work - made in a way which would force India to reject it; didn’t want to leave India
  o Led to Congress allowing Gandhi to pass the Quit India movement

Events leading to transfer of power - Rebellions
* Quit India Movement 1942
* During the war .: army was already mobilised

• British India govt. acted very swiftly -> arrested all Congress leaders and imprisoned them
  o Gandhi was imprisoned .: provincial leadership took over (second tier of leadership)
  o No longer non-violent; destruction of govt. property which represented the Raj e.g., railway lines and post offices-> being run by second tier of leadership as Gandhi and others were imprisoned
  o Strong mobilisation across social classes - imprisonment did not stop the outbreak of the movement
  o Despite this, it did not force the British to leave -> instead they used 50 battalions and crushed the uprisings
• 1943 - Bengal Famine; British divert food from countryside to the city due to the war causing shortages
  o 2mn dead and eroded the legitimacy of Raj; man-made famine
  o People were starving in the countryside
• May 1945 - Europe’s battle was over, but Japan remained a threat
  o Indian National Army was created by Japan and a former Indian congressman - prisoners of war from Japan composed of it; 40,000 men and women
  o Declared a provincial govt. of free India
  o Campaigned failed
• Mutiny in Royal Indian Navy 1946 -> result of the army being undermined
  o Three arrested men from the army were put on trial -> convicted; the trials mobilised public opinion into a violence demonstration across the country
  o Undermine the loyalty of the Indian officers and army
  o Soldiers were then set free in 1946 -> Mutiny of Navy; Britain was losing control over instruments with which they held India

Events leading to transfer of power - Negotiations
* Viceroy invited British to open communications - but talks failed because Jinnah asserted right to be ‘sole spokesmen’ -> unacceptable for the Congress
* In Britain, Labour and Atlee 1945
o Recog. they lacked the resources to retain India

• 1946 - Second Elections under the govt. of India Act
  o Congress won 90% of the open, but Muslim League won all 30 seats in the central legislature and 442/500 provincial seats
  o Followed by Cabinet Mission, March 1946 - complex, federal, three tier confederation was proposed
• Attempt to balance Nehru’s demand for a strong centre and Jinnah’s demand for a control over Muslim areas
  o Jinnah accepted but Congress rejected this because the centre would be too weak to embark on the changes they desires post-independence.
• He wanted a Hindu minority in Pakistan so that the Muslim minority would be treated well in India too
  o Nehru and Congress rejected this - did not wanted a federal structure because they sought an Indian Raj - centralised govt where India grew into an industrial power
• Partition was more preferable than a weak India
  o Jinnah accelerated the potential for partition by giving the call for direct action

Direct Action - mass violence across the country 1946
* Great Calcutta Killings -> 4,000 deaths in one city
o Lord Mountbatten decided to advance the timetable and enabled the partition in the aftermath 1947

• Many, like Gandhi, argued Partition was a price a heavy price for freedom - wanted to avoid it
• Permanently altered geo-politics in the region
• Led to continued violence between India and Pakistan

Freedom of Partition
* Displaced 12.5mn, killed 1mn, women abducted and raped 75,000
* Violence and instability - made it one of the most discussed and disputed event in South Asian history

• Punjab
  o Sikh areas were divided into two and they mobilised into jathas -> carried out raids
  o Highly militarised society; demobbed after WWII (army was largely recruited from Punjab during war)
  o Intense and frantic rioting; border hardened very quickly
• Bengal
  o Not concentrated in a small period like Punjab - more episodic and protracted communal violence, starting in 1946
  o Border remained porous, so prolonged displacement and migration
  o Multiple experience of partition - first partition (1905) was reversed