CASTE

Question 1

Paul Brass
* Crises of national unity: Punjab, the northeast, and Kashmir
* Communal and caste conflict: secularism, Hindu nationalism, and the Indian state

Answer 1

Crises of national unity: Punjab, the northeast, and Kashmir
* What challenges does diversity pose to national unity?
o Ethnic and linguistic fragmentation
* Communication and coordination can become very difficult; lack of a national identity and sense of disunity
o Religious differences
* Tensions and conflicts are common in areas where a religious groups feels marginalised; Sikhs, Muslims, Hindus
o Economic disparities
* unequal distribution of income and wealth- resentment
o Political fragmentation
* Different regional leaders and political parties; absence of national consensus due to competing visions

What crises of national unity has unfolded in the Punjab?
o The Punjab Suba Movement 1950-60s
* Demand by Punjabis for a separate state
* Protection of language and culture -> felt threatened by the dominance of Hindi
o The Anandpur Sahib Resolution 1973
* Recognition of Sikh religion as its own entity and greater autonomy for the Punjab
* Seen as a threat to national unity
o Operation Blue Star 1984
* Attach on the Golden Temple led to a deep mistrust and hatred between Sikhs and the Indian govt. who was attacking their religion and identity
o Khalistan Movement 1980s
* Demanded Khalistan to be a separate Sikh state
* Militant groups led this movement e.g., Babbar Khalsa and the Khalistan Liberation Force
* The Indian govt. saw this as a direct attack on national unity
o Anti-Sikh Riots
* Following the assassination of PM Indira Gandhi by her Sikh bodyguards in retaliation to operation Bluestar
* Hindu and Sikh communities further polarised

Political and economic marginalisation of the Sikhs
* Eco marginalisation
 The Green Revolution 1960s transformed the agricultural sector in the Punjab, which was the main source of livelihood for Sikhs
 Land is now concentrated in the hands of a few wealthy farmers -> marginalisation of Sikh farmers; deprivation
* Political Marginalisation
 Despite being the maj. in Punjab, often suffered exclusion from powerful positions .: undermining their influence
 State govt. has freq. neglected Sikh interests because of non-Sikh political party dominance e.g., Congress and the BJP
 The Akali Dal - sought to represent Sikh interests but faced barriers in attempts to obtain political power
* Social Marginalisation
 caste system considers some at low positions; suffered discrimination .: injustice and social ineq.
 Overwhelming exclusion and marginalisation

• What crises of national unity has unfolded in the Northeast?
  o Naga Movement
• National Socialist Council of Nagaland -> demanded a sovereign Naga state
• Engaged in violent activities
  o Assam Movement
• Anti-foreigner movement
• Wanted all illegal immigrants to be deported - the creation of United Liberation Front of Assam turned this movement violent
• Attacks on infrastructure and civilians
  o Manipur Movement
• Want an indep. Manipur state - combination of several groups e.g., PLA and KCP
  o The cause of crises
• Historical marginalisation
   Indian state has been neglectful towards this regions - limited infrastructure and dvlp.
• Migration
   From other parts of India -> linguistic and cultural differences within the region
   Tensions between migrants and the local population
• Ethnic Identity
   Northeast inhibits a plurality of cultures, identities and languages
   Tension was common
• Insurgency
   Govt. response has been undemocratic, often with harsh HR abuses by the security force
   Deep mistrust and estrangement from the Indian govt. -> caused greater alienation and pushed these people into insurgents hands
• Economics marginalisation
   Lack of opportunities and infrastructure within the region and created mass poverty and unemployment.
• What crises of national unity has unfolded in the Kashmir?
  o Accession to India
• Jammu and Kashmir’s accession to India 1947 was met with controversy; Pakistan also claimed the region
• Protests within the regions
  o Article 370
• Regions of Jammu and Kashmir were granted restricted autonomy e.g., law making and a separate constitution
• Perceived as a direct threat to national unity vs essential to preserving the regions uniqueness
  o Insurgency
• Within Kashmir, it was a crisis for national unity - triggered by suspected rigging in the 1987 state elections, worsened by the Indian state suppressing elections
  o Human Rights Abuses
• Conflict within Kashmir as see mass civilian casualties; both the fault of militants and Indian security forces
• E.g., extrajudicial killings, torture and sexual violence
  o Regional tensions
• Pakistan and India have both fought over Kashmir, and relations are sour

Communal and caste conflict: secularism, Hindu nationalism, and the Indian state
* How has caste conflicts challenged secularism?
o Discrimination
* Against lower castes, they suffer in education, political representation and employment - major contributor to strife and tension within the country
* Cannot create a national identity when those feel marginalised and excluded based on their caste
o Violence
* Lower and upper castes have often come into conflict with another - resentment and superiority
o Political mobilisation
* Parties have recog. the power of appealing to the marginalised in securing political success
* Mobilise voters; parties have capitalised on the caste system in a vie for power
o Reservation System
* A systems of quotas given to lower castes was met with controversy; argue it is perpetuating the very caste divisions they are trying to diminish
o Caste-based violence in politics
* Political leaders are seeking to secure election wins by mobilising caste support

• How has communal conflict challenged secularism?
  o Religious tension
• Communal tension is the result of religious tension between communities, espc. Muslims and Hindus
  o Polarization
• Religion has been a dividing factor, polarising communities
• Both political parties and religious organised have worsened this issue by fuelling their animosity to achieve their own interests
  o Political mobilisation
• Political parties have recog. their electoral success if they represent diff. religious communities - entrenched the issue
  o Discrimination
• Minority communities have often suffered - deepened resentment and tension
  o Threat to National Unity
• The principles of religious tolerance and peaceful coexistence are fundament to India’s secular fabric, but the challenges listed above are capable of destroying it.
  o Resolved - address the root causes of these tensions and promote equality in all forms
• Ensure rule of law is upheld, encourage interfaith communication and relations to understand one another, holding parties and organisation to account when they attempt to exploit communal tensions
• How has the rise of Hindu nationalism impacted secularism?
  o Religious polarisation
• Hindus have increasingly identified themselves as one groups and other religious communities as outsiders - feel excluded from the concept of national identity
  o Marginalisation of minorities
• Muslims - discrimination in employment and politics - become increasingly marginalised and victims of hate speech by Hindu nationalist groups
  o Political mobilisation
• Political groups and parties have presented Hindu nationalism and secularism as opposing conceits; cannot both coexist
• E.g., BJP mobilises voters through this presentation of competing ideologies
  o Threat to the Idea of India
• A secular and pluralistic conception of India is being challenged
• Hindu nationalism directly challenges the principles of religious tolerance and coexistence because they present a new, exclusionary definition of Indian identity.
  o Erosion of democratic norms
• Hindu nationalist groups have made attempts to supress civil liberties e.g., the press and freedom of speech
  o Resolve
• Promote and emphasise religious tolerance and pluralism -> ensuring democratic values are upheld and identifying those who are seeking to advance their own interests by undermining these values.

o The impact on of Hindu nationalism ideology on communal relations
* Polarisation
 Hindu nationalism has enforced religious polarisation
 Consider ‘others’ as threats to Hinduism e.g., Islam - created tense relations between communities and violence
* Marginalisation of minorities
 This concept of the ‘other’ is extremely damaging to the identity of India - suggesting as ‘us’ vs ‘them’ will create deep mistrust and hostility between communities
 always resulting in an outbreak of violence due to the tense atmosphere
 Again, Muslims have been discriminated against in education and politics
* Violence
 inevit. result of marginalised and the conception of impossible religious coexistence
* Political mobilisation
 parties represent specific religious communities, rather than the interests of the citizenry as a whole - becoming politicises makes the issue impossible to overcome because voters are mobilised along religious lines instead

• What has driven caste conflict?
  o Economic ineq.
• Certain castes have been regularly appointed lower positions, achieving minimal socio-eco. benefits
   Eco. opportunities are disproportional to diff. castes -> limited resource access
   Endure low-paying occupations e.g., manual labour which keeps them in poverty and deprives them of proportional access to education or healthcare
• Exploitation
   Those in higher classes who have accumulated wealth and power, often participate in discriminatory practices and marginalisation to maintain their position of privilege
   Resentment and frustration from those at the bottom; politically organised themselves as they do not consider themselves as equals within the socio-eco. hierarchy.
  o Social ineq.
• Certain castes have enjoyed higher societal positions, at the expense of those below them
   Lower-caste groups have been denied this social status - remaining subject to various forms of discrimination and exclusion e.g., limited education access
   This systems has forced lower-caste groups to demand greater social eq. through political and social movements
• Culture
   Cultural practices and beliefs are reasons behind the prevailing caste prejudice
   E.g., practice of untouchability; certain castes are ‘polluted’ - key contributor to the maintenance of social ineq. and caste discrimination
  o Political mobilisation
• Demands for improved representation and social equality
• Caste-based political parties have sought to represent the interests of specific castes who feel marginalised and neglected by the Indian govt; in turn, reaffirms caste politics
   Usually demand greater political and eco. rights e.g., Bahujna Samaj Party represented the lower-caste interests in Uttar Pradesh
• Violence
   Dominant castes have response to these attempts of greater political assertiveness with violence and intimidation
   Cycle of counter-violence
• Fragmentation
   Indian politics has scattered along political lines
   On the one hand - ppl feel represented and heard
   On the other - politicians are exploiting their marginalisation to achieve electoral success - perpetuation of the dominant exploiting the weaker
   Govt. have suffered from failure to from stable coalitions and inclusive policies as society has been politically polarised.
  o Methods
• Violence
   Those at the top of the caste hierarchy often use violence to stay at the top; intimidation to maintain eco and social dominance
   Lower caste are also using violence to be heard and assert their demands for improved rights
• Protests
   Form of action for the lower castes to organise themselves and communicate their grievances
• Electoral politics
   Caste-based parties
   Solidarity and identity