BRITISH

Question 1

Ayesha Jalal and Sugata Bose
* British impact on India

Answer 1

Economic transformation under British raj
* Heavy exploitation -> labour, resource extraction and self-advantageous trade policies; impoverishment
* Deindustrialisation -> dismantled and disrupted local economies to promote British goods
* Land Tenure Systems -> Permanents Settlement in Bengal created social and eco. inequality by disrupting agrarian economies
* Policies -> promote British interests whilst harming South Asians e.g., free trade and cash crop cultivation

Cultural transformation under British raj
* British promotion of cultural norms and institutions e.g., language and education -> erode indigenous cultures to achieve British hegemony
* Westernisation -> spread of ideas and cultural facets e.g., food and social norms; emergence of hybrid cultural identities
* Cultural resistance -> various movements opposing colonial imposition and attempts to revive indigenous cultural practices
* Identity politics -> imposition of foreign culture inspires nationalism and the process of nation0building through reclaiming indigenous cultures

Political transformation under British raj
* Colonial rule -> imposed British political institutions that replaced South Asian systems of governance e.g., centralised bureaucracy
* Concentration of power -> resided in British hands; erosion and marginalisation of ingenious political elites as local autonomy depreciated
* Divide and Rule -> manipulation of various ethnic and religious groups to divide communities and entrench British political control
* Signif. long term pol. consq. and forever changed South Asian social fabric
* Nationalism -> anti-colonial movements emerged and grew into demands for indep.

Question 2

Ayesha Jalal and Sugata Bose
* British impact on India

Answer 2

• • Economic transformation under British raj
• Heavy exploitation -> labour, resource extraction and self-advantageous trade policies; impoverishment
• Deindustrialisation -> dismantled and disrupted local economies to promote British goods
• Land Tenure Systems -> Permanents Settlement in Bengal created social and eco. inequality by disrupting agrarian economies
• Policies -> promote British interests whilst harming South Asians e.g., free trade and cash crop cultivation
• Cultural transformation under British raj
• British promotion of cultural norms and institutions e.g., language and education -> erode indigenous cultures to achieve British hegemony
• Westernisation -> spread of ideas and cultural facets e.g., food and social norms; emergence of hybrid cultural identities
• Cultural resistance -> various movements opposing colonial imposition and attempts to revive indigenous cultural practices
• Identity politics -> imposition of foreign culture inspires nationalism and the process of nation0building through reclaiming indigenous cultures
• Political transformation under British raj
• Colonial rule -> imposed British political institutions that replaced South Asian systems of governance e.g., centralised bureaucracy
• Concentration of power -> resided in British hands; erosion and marginalisation of ingenious political elites as local autonomy depreciated
• Divide and Rule -> manipulation of various ethnic and religious groups to divide communities and entrench British political control
• Signif. long term pol. consq. and forever changed South Asian social fabric
• Nationalism -> anti-colonial movements emerged and grew into demands for indep.
  *

Question 3

Joya Chatterji
* Role of British colonial powes in partition
* Challenges the Radcliffe Award faced - boundary demarcation process
* Issues of religion in drawing Bengal
* Issues of language in drawing Bengal
* Economic impact of the border
* Political challenges congress govt. in Bengal faced after India gained indep. in 1947
* Economic challenges congress govt. in Bengal faced after India gained indep. in 1947
* Social challenges congress govt. in Bengal faced after India gained indep. in 1947
* Emergence of new political forces
* Role of regional parties

Answer 3

Role of British colonial powers in partition
Divide and rule**
o Exploited the communal differences between communities to prevent a united front against British colonial rule
o Weakened the INC by undermining the desire for a united India future, and promoted their own interests
o 1937 provincial elections was used by the British to allocate seats based on religious identity
** Constitutional influence
o Cabinet Mission Plan 1946 - federal structure with provincial autonomy
 Rejected by AIML
 Influenced the decision to enlist partition as a potential route
* Boundary Drawing
o British created a poor and hasty boundary drawing process
o Cyril Radcliffe was appointed to draw the border lines between Pakistan and India
 No prior knwldg. of region
 Rushed process creating inevit. problems e.g., division of the Punjab and Bengal provinces resulted in violence and displacement
 Massive disruptions due to mass migration across subcontinent
Transfer of Power
o British passed Indian indep. Act 1947 - formalized the partition by creating new, indep. states of Pakistan and India
o British oversaw power transfer including asset division and resources
Princely States
o Given a choice to decide either join one of the new states or remain indep/
o British administration in Bengal negotiated a princely state, Cooch Behar, with a Hindu maj. to join India
 Ramifications on Bengal’s boarders and demographics.

Social complexities of Bengal
Communal Violence
o The creation of two separate nations led to outbreaks of violence along religious lines
o Specifically for Bengal, violence exploded in Calcutta (now Kolkata)
 Riots - large number of casualties, community displacement and property destruction
 This violence moulded Bengal’s social dynamics - animosity and mistrust polarising communities along religious lines prevailed
 E.g., Noakhali riots in Bengal 1946 (prior partition) - massacre of thousands of Hindus, mass abduction of women and property damage
* Long lasting impact on the tension between communities
Refugee Crisis and Displacement
o Millions of Hindus and Muslims fled to regions created under the new borders - sought safety within their religiously defined territories
o Social and eco. challenges were created through an influx of Hindu refugees from East Pakistan into West Bengal in India
o Refugees suffered landlessness and unemployment forever altered Bengal’s demographic and social dynamics
 Tensions manifested into conflicts over identity and resources
Political Realignment
o Signif. transformations on Bengal’s political landscape
o New political parties, movements and ideologies begun to emerge
o E.g., rise of the Communist Party of India (CPI) in Bengal
 Gained popularity through an advocation for the rights of the marginalised and poor e.g., refugees
 Challenges the trad. pol. elites
o Bangla Congress and All India Forward Bloc were two regional parties that sough to represent the rights and interests of the Bengali-speaking community
 Safeguarding cultural and political rights
* Social Reforms and Gender Dynamics
o Instigated changes regarding the roles of women
* Cultural complexities of Bengal
* Language and Identity
o Partition divided the Bengali-speaking region between India and Pakistan
o Linguistic division had signif. impact on Bengal’s cultural dynamics
o Language reinterpreted as a marker of both religious and national identity
 1950s Language Movement in East Bengal demanded that Bengali be recognised as a state language in Pakistan
 Fund. to creating a distinct cultural and political identity of East Bengal, eventually becoming Bangladesh
* Religious Pluralism and Syncretism
o Bengal’s cultural and religious heritages was given it a rich reputation
o Different religious traditions coexisted and influenced one another in diff. spheres
o However the partition of Bengal created religious divisions which posed a direct challenges to their traditional syncretic culture
o Again, partition led to communal tensions and migration along religious lines
 Disrupting previous religious coexistence
 E.g., Hindus and Muslims who fled from now Bangladesh to India massively impacted the interreligious dynamics between communities which was a known pillar of Bengal history and culture
* Culture - arts and literature
o Partition, with its mass violence and life-alerting impacts on many communities inspired new bodies of literature and art which communicated this pain and trauma
 Shared human experiences
o Impact on Bengal performances of song and dance; mirrored the changing socio-politics environment
Tradition - customs and rituals
o Partition changed the deeply ingrained fabrics of diff. communities - found themselves adapting to the change in landscapes

• Challenges the Radcliffe Award faced - boundary demarcation process
• Time and information restraints
  o Transfer of power deadline forced a hasty and inefficient process
  o Needed accurate information regarding geography and demographics
  o Limited info - bound to be disastrous; hasty and arbitrary decisions = mass confusion and disputes
  o Lack of accurate info regarding Bengal’s religious and cultural composition created mixed populations; violence
  Political Interference and Manipulation
  o Various bodies e.g., British govt., INC and ML
   Everyone was championing for their respective interests
  o British contributed to the inadequacy by demanding a fast completion of the demarcation process
  o ML and INC influenced the boundary making decision to consolidate their strategic advances and political constituencies
   E.g., leaders lobbied for specific territories - disputes and conflict over regions
  Complexities of Religious Demographics
  o Within Bengal - this posed a signif. bulwark to the demarcation process
  o Bengal inhibited a diverse population, a mix of Hindus and Muslims .: creating borders along religious lines was extremely complex
  o The award was dependent upon flawed and inaccurate data .: the arbitrary decisions made signif. impacted the region’s religious composition
  o E.g., Hindu-maj. areas inevt. Ended up in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) and Muslim-maj. ended up in West Bengal (India)
   Violence
  Humanitarian Crisis and Violence
  o Decisions made created humanitarian consq. on an unbelievable scale; migration and violence unfolded
  o Millions were forced to abandon their homes and lives to migrate

Issues of religion in drawing Bengal
Determining Religious Maj
o Determining this within Bengal was difficult due to a mixed population of Hindus and Muslims
o E.g., Muslim maj. and Hindu Maj. in diff. parts of Bengal - communities vied for territory based on religious identity; tension and violence
Communal Tensions and Violence
o Religion was key in this - borders being created based on religious differences entrenched communal polarisation
o Hindus faced violence in Muslim dominated areas like East Pakistan (Bangladesh) whilst in India with a Hindu maj., Muslims migrated to Pakistan due to violence
Displacement and Refugee Crisis
o Mass displacement followed the partition of Bengal - Hindus and Muslims who were in ‘wrong’ regions had to flee

Issues of language in drawing Bengal
* Language Policy
o Following the partition of India, this became a contentious issue
o Hindi was the official state language in India
o Bengal resisted this as Bengali with their predominant language
o Hindi elites asserted their dominance and authority by marginalising other languages, like Bengali
o Alienated Bengalis - widespread protests, demanding linguistic rights
o E.g., 1950, Hindi was declared the official language resulted in the Language Movement
 Recog. of Bengali and linguistic autonomy
Language-based identity politics
o Bengal’s politics was heavily shaped by the role of language in identity politics
o Those who spoke Bengali associated it with their respective regional identity
o It was understood as a motif of pride, key to culture and heritage, often a way to mobilise political support
Impact on Politics, Society and Culture
o Dictated how political parties formed, the dynamics of electorates and govt. politics
o Social norms were influenced by language, they defined ones social status and belonging
o E.g., regional political parties emerged out of identity politics in Bengal, a desire to safeguard and protect the interests (inextricably linked with their rights to language)

Economic impact of the border
Disruption of Trade and Transport
o The trade and transport between East and West Bengal was interrupted by the partition of Bengal
o Before this, Bengal enjoyed being a region with well-estb. trade networks and infrastructure
o New borders followed tariffs, trade barriers and new transportation challenges
o The flow of goods and capital was inhibited .: access for population fell and saw the closure of traditionally used trade routes
o Disastrous effects on livelihoods of people
Loss of industries and Agricultural Lands
o Both East and West Bengal were hit hard by this
o Agricultural and industrial assets were divided due to partition
o E.g., loss of jute mills - negative implications for employment and production, causing both West and East losing revenue
Challenges of Economic Reconstruction and Development
o Partition and its violent aftermath resulted in lost ,markets, collapsed industries -> West and East needed to rebuild their economies
o Resource constraints impacted their ability to rebuild

Political challenges congress govt. in Bengal faced after India gained indep. in 1947
Communal violence
o Like elsewhere, Hindus and Muslims were clashing - Congress govt. needed to estb. law and order to achieve communal harmony an maintain law
o This issue persisted even after the immediate aftermath of partition, communities continued to clash
Refugee crisis and rehabilitation
o The displacement caused by crossing the newly drawn border
o Even the basic necessities like food and shelter were signif. govt. challenges
o Rehabilitation was complex; refugees needed employment and land allocation
o Barriers and tension between refugees and local population caused crisis
Language and identity politics
o Congress had to navigate demands for Bengal as the state language, amongst other language rights
o The language movement in East Pakistan in 1952 was centred on recog. Bengal as a state language of Pakistan
o Congress needed to respond to this aspiration whilst navigating the political implications of such a movement within Indian federalism
Political competition and coalition politics
o The Communist Party of India rose as a political challenger to Congress’s dominance
 CPI was gaining broad support in rural Bengal, amongst the peasantry
o At a national level, coalition politics was another issue - dependent upon the support of regional parties like All India Forward Bloc and the Praja Socialist Party to maintain their power
 Therefore managing alliances and balancing regional interests alongside national interests

Economic challenges congress govt. in Bengal faced after India gained indep. in 1947
Agricultural challenges
o Bengal’s economy was dependent upon the agricultural sector
o Partition declined agricultural productivity because land division and farmer displacement was a signif. disruption
o Govt. was forced to revive this sector to kickstart their economy e.g., land redistribution and irrigation facilities
o E.g., the govt. focused on implementing policies which would address landlessness and absentee landlordism
 But limited and fragmented resources, inadequate administrative capacity and opposition from those with vested interests undermined their success
Industrial challenges
o The industrial sector before the partition was very strong through industries like tea, textiles and jute
o Massive contributor to the economy, but the disruption of supply chains for these markets undermined economic prosperity
o Govt. needed to not only promote industrial dvlp., but mitigate labour relations too
 Labour strikes and trade union movements inhibited productivity and investment
Poverty and inequality
o Socio-eco. issues were hard to resolve and widespread poverty was worsened by displacement of millions.
o Social systems and livelihoods were disrupted -> implemented poverty alleviation measures and social welfare programmes to overcome these issues
o E.g., land reforms and employment generation programs to improve the welfare of marginalised sectors of society
 Effects of these were limited; bureaucratic corruption and resource limitations
Fiscal challenges
o Managing state finances and achieving economic stability -> partition resulted in revenue loss and a disruption in their fin. systems
 Budget deficits, debt management
o Congress struggled to find a balance between encouraging eco. growth and stability, whilst ensuring the general needs of the population was met.

Social challenges congress govt. in Bengal faced after India gained indep. in 1947
Communal Riots
o Riots in Bengal was an immediate consq. of partition
o Congress was left to solve this; reinstituting law and order, homing the displaced and rehabilitating victims
o E.g., in Noakhali, Bengal needed to restore trust between communities following the riots which caused mass violence and Hindu displacement
*Refugee Crisis
o Congress faced resource strain when seeking to accommodate the influx of refugees who needed basic necessities e.g. shelter and healthcare/
o Societal integration was one issue; could not allow animosity to grow and polarise groups
Language and identity politics
o The congress faced demands for Bengali to become an official language, promoting their culture
o Hindi becoming the sole language of India 1950s caused large discontent within other communities - jeopardising social harmony; already frail due to partition
Caste Discrimination and Social Inequality
o Congress had to address the inequality that marginalised communities faced in various forms, seeking to create a more inclusive and egalitarian society
o Raja Ram Mohan Roy ad other social reformers sought to tackle social ineq. and discrim. by dismantling issues like untouchability, social ineq. and caste-based violence
o E.g., the Scheduled Castes and Tribes in Bengal faced discrimination in education and employment
Agrarian Issues and Land Reforms
o Congress recog. the problematic situation in Bengal; a region rooted in agriculture but suffering from landlessness and tenancy was a disaster
o Congress needed to balance a provision of social justice in rural areas and promote productivity

Emergence of new political forces
Communist Party of India (CPI)
o Advocated for social justice, land reforms and secularism - popular before indep and gained more support after partition
o Support based = peasants and rural workers; those who felt most marginalised and oppressed
o Jyoti Basu and Hare Krishna Konar - leaders; opposed Congress’s polices and focused on social issues
CPI(M)
o Marxist breakaway which emerged following the partition of Bengal
o Marxist-Leninist ideology
o Labour rights and land reforms were key pillars
* All India Forward Bloc
o After the partition, Subhas Chandra Bose led a breakaway faction from Congress
o Party fought for indep. and was a platform for those dissatisfied with Congress’s polices
o Key ideas: socialism, secularism -> Bengal deserved greater autonomy
o Youth and the radical found themselves drawn to this political movement
* Akhil Bhartiya Hindu Mahasabha
o Post-partition, this RW Hindu nationalist organisation gained prominence
o Emphas. A Hindu-centric agenda, protecting the rights of Hindus who were displaced from East Pakistan
o Those who felt endangered or opposed the Muslim-maj. rising in East Pakistan supported this movement
Krishak Praja Party
o Ajoy Mukherjee led this signig. political movement after the partition
o Regional party which focused on fighting for peasant and workers rights
 Focused on agrarian issues e.g., land reforms
*Naxalite Movement
o LW radical movement dating to 1960s
o Focused on improving social issues like poverty and oppression
o Methods were more violent; employing armed struggle revolution
o The disenchanted youth who had little faith in existing estb. supported this movement
o Created violent clashed with other political movement

Role of regional parties
Praja Socialist Party
o Advocated a socialist ideology that emerged after the partition
o Focused on land reforms and labour rights
o Working class and peasantry supported them - engaged in coalitions and political alliances with other political movements
Bangla Congress
o Focused on entrenching and safeguarding Bengali political rights
o Highlighted language rights and cultural identity
o Mobilised the Bengal population and was instrumental in the Bengal language movement, leading to the recog. of Bengali as an official language within India

Congress’s challenges
Rise of factional politics within Bengal Congress
* Congress in Bengal differed to the INC in India - suffered internal divisions and was not a monolithic entity
* Failure to provide a united front resulted in a loss of support and electoral defeat
* Regional and linguistic identities
o Different factions within Congress aligned themselves with different strands of Bengali nationalism
o Faced with conflicting interests
o E.g., Sarat Chandra Bose fought for a federal system to empower the states
 Greater autonomy would safeguard Bengali identity and culture
o E.g., Prafulla Chandra Ghosh advocated for centralisation
 Strongest potential for Bengal, and was hesitant towards regional autonomy
* Powerful personalities and factional politics
o Positions of power was a brawl between various leaders like Ajoy Mukherjee, Atulya Ghosh, and Siddhartha Shankar Ray
o Agenda and priorities clashed which undermined the broader concerns of Congress
 E.g., Ajoy Mukherjee’s support base was rooted in urban middle class
* The policies within his agenda was preferable to this demographic e.g., industrialisation and modernisation, directly opposing the WC interests
o Rise in disillusionment and frustration across the Bengali population

Impact of Sino-Indian conflict 1962
* Leadership polarization
o Leaders within Congress differed between a diplomatic and aggressive stance towards China
o Deepened factional divisions as leaders found themselves siding with one or the other
o E.g., Siddhartha Shankar Ray supported a strong response to China and openly criticised the diplomatic stance of the central govt., demanding for greater assertiveness
o E.g., Ajoy Mukherjee advocated for a diplomatic response, arguing an aggressive response irresponsible
* Economic timing
o The conflict unfolded against a backdrop of eco. hardship - inflation and crop failures had devastates the population
o Congress were accused of failing to adequately respond to the conflict and wounded India’s territorial integrity
 Reputation and credibility damage
o CPI capitalised on this mishap, and gained signif. success in 1962 elections

What is the political situation in 1960s West Bengal
* Political climate changed signif.
* Congress had allowed change to occur due to their inadequacies
o Complacency
o Failure to aid marginalised groups
o Internal divisions
o Opened the door for opposition parties
* Efficiency had fallen but corruption had rose - associated with nepotism
o Traditional supporters e.g., rural and WC withdrew support due to lack of livelihood improvement
o Opposition parties had redeemed themselves; no longer fragmented and gained support during 1960s - more powerfully challenge Congress’s political monopoly
o The rise of population support in parties like the Praja Socialist Party and the Bangla Congress further fragmented the political landscape

Events
o West Bengal saw various protests and movements which was a clear indication of discontent
o E.g., Naxalite movement was the manifestation of youth disillusionment towards the political systems
 More violent and direct action was advocated e.g., armed revolution