INDIA

Question 1

Ram Guha
* Challenges Nehru faced trying to establish democracy

Answer 1

• • Challenges Nehru faced in trying to establish democracy
• • Aftermath of British colonialism
• o British had left a centralized, authoritarian state which was unaccountable to the Indian people
• o Colonialism had alerted India’s political and social institutions
• o Nehru could not govern India with the same institution which enslaved it
• • Diversity
• o The partition of India came from the religious divide between Hindus and Muslims
• o A new democratic system had to be attractive, accepted and representative of all religious groups
• o Linguistic diversity -> prevented the exclusion of linguistic minorities from the new system
• • Issue of caste
• o Caste discrimination was a issue with a long history in India
• o Nehru needed to institute a democracy that was inclusive of the interests of all castes
• o Could not allow the marginalisation of minorities
• • Political opposition
• o Communist Party of India
• o Socialist Party
• o Regional political parties
• o Nehru was left with the taxing demand of striking a balance between all these different groups, without which, a stable and effective government would be impossible
• • Rise of authoritarianism
• o Nehruvian model of dvlp
•  Centralised planning model of eco. dvlp. -> dependent upon state intervention in the economy
•  Benefits -> regulated economy and created large public sector enterprises
•  However, it concentrated an enormous power to regulate the lives of the Indian population
• o Regional and ethnic identities
•  Various regional and ethnic identities who demanded regional autonomy
•  This threatened the centralized model and created political infighting within the central govt.
•  Govt. adopted authori. measures to contain and supress demands.
• o Decline of Congress dominance
•  1970s ushered in a more corrupt and authoritarian Congress party
•  Opposition parties were undermining their claim to power
•  Fear and insecurity amongst Congress leaders triggered a declaration of emergency
• o Emergency rule
•  A state of emergence was declared by Indira Gandhi -> suspension of various liberties and the arrest of political opponents
•  The court ruling that parl. was unfit to rule due to malpractice which triggered this descent into emergency rule
•  Media censorship, strikes were banned
•  Govt. were unwillingly to let go of their power - went to extreme methods to maintain their rule.
• Erosion of democratic institutions
• o Rise of populism
•  Capitalised on the resentment and fear of the general public to wield power
•  Often come to undermine the insti. they promised to uphold -> attacked media, judiciary which were the pillars for a healthy democracy
• 
• o Societal polarization
•  Diversity in religion and ethnicity means tensions between these groups have always been a consistent problem
•  Tensions have become more acute as political leaders have used these division as a base to build their own power
•  Marginalized communities will turn to altv. options which continue to erode the legitimacy of democ. insit. as popular support is decayed over time
• o Money
•  Parties have become reliant upon the wealth and support of indiv. -> core way to fund campaigns
•  Money has had a greater influence over politics and political decisions which directly challenges the legitimacy of a democratic system when fairness and transparency are not there
• o Decline of public institutions
•  Increase in privatisation as more public services are being privately owned
•  Quality of these services have deteriorates and citizens have lost ways to hold govt. to account
• • Nehru strove for a democratic system based on secularism, economic prosperity and social justice
• o Constitution was one upheld various freedoms; free speech, press e.c.t.
• Success of Indian democracy
• • The first democratic leaders
• o Gandhi, Nehru and Ambedkar was fund. to the success of democracy in India due to their admirable commitment to democratic values e.g., rule of law, universal suffrage, secularism
• • The constitution of India
• o Vital to upholding democracy in India through the provision of freedoms to citizens and prevents arbitrary rule of govt. by holding them to account through the rule of law
• o Ever evolving -> amended and modernised to reflect new and changing societal issues
• • Diversity of India
• o Heterogeneity characterises India; plurality of religion, language, culture -> all have been bulwarks against democracy
• o Altv., it had been a hidden strength that allowed a multi-party system to prevail and fairly represents the diverse interests across India
• o Allowed the natural collusion of an inclusive and representative democracy which is another pillar of strength against challenges and shocks to democracy
• • Society and Media
• o Media is a cornerstone of govt. accountability
• o Civil organisations (NGOS or HR groups) have raised awareness, educated the public and mobilised the population to hold the govt. to account
• o Media has frequently exposed corruption too
• Failures of Indian democracy
• • Corruption
• o Prevented officials from being held accountable .: undermined the democratic insti. of India
• • Communalism
• o Religious differences has created polarization amongst the general public
• o Led to clashes and conflicts between religious groups which jeopardises social cohesion
• • Caste
• o Been a part of Indian democracy and a key feature for many centuries resulting in discrimination and inequality
• o Despite the attempts to increase inclusivity and fairness in the social and political sphere, casteism remains a prevalent issue
• • Electoral malpractice
• o Elections are vital part of democracy and would be an indicator of fairness in participation, but India suffers from violence and intimidation during elections which shape the result to benefit the powerful and few
• o Undermines the ability for citizens to exercise their freedom to vote w/out being influenced by others/threats
• o Can this fairly represent the views of the population if these elections are actually tampered?
• • Regionalism
• o Diversity in India exists on a scale where the pros and cons are very rarely at a state of equilibrium
• o Distinct cultures and languages have led to calls for regional autonomy -> issues of identity and representation
• o Central govt. and regional govt. have suffered a rise in tension and conflicts as there is no cohesive view of how India should look
• o Undermines the stability of the country - challenges to power
• Exceptional democracy
• • Pakistan and Bangladesh have both struggled to establish and struggled to maintain democratic insit.
• • India has remained a democratic state since 1947
• • Factors contributing to India as a successful democratic nation
• • Ongoing commitment to secularism
• o guarantees religious freedom and prevents religious discrimination
• o Prevented the marginalisation of religion and rising resentment leading to challenges against govt.
• • Civil society
• o India’s societal participation has been vital in supporting the heal of their democratic institutions
• o NGOs and media have consistently educated the public to raise awareness about govt. corruption and enforced accountability under their demands of honouring the ROL
• o These bodies have also promoted transparency and accountability which prevents democracy against the rise of marginalized communities and appeases those who feel silences
• • An independent judiciary
• o Allowed the role of law to be upheld the rights of indiv. citizens are protected from arbitrary govt. or corrupt officials
• • Their electoral system
• o It is the largest and arguably one of the most complex, but it was generated successful outcomes and are free
• • Economic development
• o Since the 1990s, India as been great economic growth which has consolidated democracy through the creation of a middle class who are reliant and invested in democratic insti. and values
• • Faced with various issues, but seem to be evolving and adapting with each threat to ensure democracy prevails**

Question 2

Paul Brass
* Political change and government after independence
* Bureacratic inefficiency
* Parties and politics

Answer 2

What were the political changes that occurred in the early years of indep
o Constitution
* Implemented a democratic system of govt. with universal adult suffrage
* Federal system of government
o Political parties
* INC - emerged as the dominant party
* Other political parties came to challenge Congress’s dominance e.g., CMP gained support in Kerala and West Bengal
o Linguistic Reorganisation
* 1956 Indian states were reorganised along linguistic lines
* Regional parties demanded greater autonomy and resources for their constituents e.g., Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam in Tamil Nadu and the Akali Dal in Punjab.
o Economic policies
* Mixed model economy combined public and private enterprises
* Reforms like redistributing land to landless
* Showing sings of corruption and bureaucratic inefficiency
o **Foreign policy **
* Implementing a policy of non-alignment allowed them to avoid aligning with power blocs during CW

How did India’s political structure evolve over time?
o Emergency Period
* Suspended civil liberties ; eroded democratic rights and freedoms
* Constitution was crafted to increase govt. power and imprison political opponents
o Rise of Regional Parties
* Became a challenger to Congress’s dominance - often based on linguistic and regional identities
* Regions were championing for greater autonomy, unsatisfied with Congress e.g., Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam in Tamil Nadu and the Telugu Desam Party in Andhra Pradesh.
o Coalition governments
* Became the norm in 1990s - so single party was wining a maj. across India
* Unstable and ongoing leadership changes
* United Front 1996-98 was a coalition between the CPI and regional parties
o Economic liberalisation
* 1990s saw the government withdrawing control over the economy, encouraging foreign invest.
* EG and foreign invest. Increased massively
* Marginalised of farmers and rising ineq. also followed - no govt. intervention
o Rise of the BJP
* Became a formidable political force

73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments 1992
o **73rd **-> introduced Panchayati Raj Institutions; local govt. bodies within villages were given constitutional status in every state
* Increased rural participation in decision-making activities
* Provision of core services e.g., healthcare
o 74th -> Urban Local Bodies were local govt. bodies instituted at a city level
* Services like transport and sanitation
o Women representation
* Two amendments demanded that at a minimum, 1/3 of seats in PRIs and ULBs be reserved for women
* Increased women in decision-making process, greater chance of improving their conditions
o Financial devolution
* Govt. fund must be allocated to PRIs and ULBs - fin. autonomy has allowed initiatives like dvlp. projects to address local needs

What challenges did India’s government face?
o CORRUPTION
* Bureaucratic Corruption
 All levels of govt. have suffered form corruption which has undermined dvlp. and growth
 E.g., Commonwealth Games scam revealed officials siphoning off funds meant for sports infrastructure
* Political Corruption
 Politicians use power to increase power to further their own agendas
 2G 2008 scam - licenses were allocated to telecom companies below market rates which caused a signig. loss to the govt. exchequer
* Judicial Corruption
 Judges can be bribed e.g., 1991 Jain hawala scandal - politicians often bribing judges for preferable judgements
* Impact on development
 Pauses devlp. - delays and additional costs
 Poor quality of publicly provided services e.g., healthcare and education which are fund. to quality of life
 Undermines democracy and legitimacy as faith in insti. falls
* Reforms
 Right to Inform Act 2005 - citizens can access govt. info.; transparency
 The Prevention of Corruption Act 1998
 Have not been very successful

o BUREACRATIC INEFFICIENCY
* Delayed Project Implementation
 Red tape hinder the ability to successfully implement projects
 Bribes are often used to secure approval e.g., Delhi Metro 1984 suffered a decade of bureaucratic inefficiency
* Poor Quality of Public Services
* Lack of accountability
 Officials do not suffer the repercussions of their actions which encourages them to continue
 E.g., Adarsh Housing Society scam of 2010 saw politicians acquiring land meant for war widows in Mumbai was ignored
* Overlapping responsibilities
 Causes mass confusion and duplication - waste of resources e.g., construction of the Kudankulam nuclear plant in Tamil Nadu was delayed by central and state govt. overlap

Rise of Muslim nationalism within Indian government
* The Bharatiya Janata Party
 Associated with the Hindu nationalist movement - won multiple elections .: formed govt. at the national and state level
 Policies promote Hindu benefits e.g., construction of a Ram temple in Ayodhya and to repeal Article 370 in Jammu and Kashmir
* The Ayodhya Dispute
 Mosque was built on a site where Hindus believe the God Ram was born .: 1992 they demolished mosque -> violence and unrest

Parties and politics
* How did political parties evolve in independent India?
o Congress Dominance
* Post-indep., emerged as the dominant party within Indian politics
* Embodied a range of regional and ideological forces during the anti-colonial movement
* Dominance was asserted at both national and state levels
* Fund. to the drafting of the Indian Constitution - core framework for the democratic governance of India
o Formation of Opposition Parties
* Congress dominance encouraged the growth of political opponents e.g., Socialist Party, CPI and Swatantra Party
* Despite varying ideological and social differences, they all sought to undermine Congress hegemony by splitting their support base apart
* E.g., Socialist Party - urban middle class support through and advocation for economic and social justice
 CPI’s support or land reforms incurred support amongst the rural poor
o The Rise of Regional Parties
* Regional parties were tailored towards specific regional, ethnic or linguistic identities; came into the Indian political scene in the 1960s/70s
* In their respective regions, they undermined Congress dominance through demands for greater autonomy
* E.g., DMK in Tamil Nadu, TDP in Andhra Pradesh and Akali Dal in Punjab
o The Era of Coalition Politics
* With the explosion of political (regional) parties and disillusionment amongst the public Congress dominance was wanning
* Fragmentation of the Indian political envir. saw frequent coalition politics at a national level
* E.g., the National Front and the United Front - representative of the ideological and regional diversity existing within India
* Smaller parties were able to gain a foothold into central govt.
o Rise of BJP
* Challenger to Congress’s secularism and represented a Hindu nationalist ideology
* Mobilised support amongst Hindu groups; 1996 and 98 general elections revealed them as the single largest party

Impact on India’s political process
o Democratic Governance
* The dominance of Congress was instrumental to the implementation of democratic institutions and processes
* The India constitution reflected Congress’s emphasis on secularism, democracy and socialism; blueprint to democratic governance
* Opposition parties were fund. to maintaining principles of transparency, accountability and representation
o Representation
* Emergence of various ethnic-based political parties
* Those who have felt marginalised or overlooked as a minority found a platform to vocalise their grievances
* E.g., Akali Dal in Punjab and the Shiv Sena in Maharashtra embody the interests of the Sikh and Maratha communities
o Fragmentation of the political system
* The evolution of political and emergence of regional parties, plus the decline of Congress dominance has reshaped the political environment of Indian politics
* Diversity and representation have improved, it is a double edged sword, as frequent govt. changes has ushered in instability.
* E.g., United front lasted two years, and successive govt. seem to be following this short-lived pattern
o Ideological polarization
* Evolution has polarized ideologies
* Congress’s principles of secularism and socialism was directly challenged by the BJP’s advocation for free-market policies and nationalism
* Important issues now suffer a lack of consensus e.g., BJP’s Citizenship Amendment Act grants non-Muslim migrants was opposed by opposition parties
 Perceived as discriminatory and contradictory to the secular principles of the Indian Constitution
o Money and Power
* Money has become common in Indian politics
* Smaller parties or indep. candidates may rely on illegal means to fin. campaigns
* Corruption and criminalisation of politics

What has challenged the dominance of the Congress party?
o Group interests replacing political ideologies
* Caste-based politics
 Has become prominent within the Congress Party
 Factions within the party have followed
 E.g., in Uttar Pradesh, the Congress needed to align with Dalit parties to secure votes
 E.g., in Maharashtra, Congress needed Martha and OBC parties to secure votes
* Regional Interests
 Increased autonomy has undermined national identity as local issues have been elevated over national issues
 E.g., Congress supported the desire for a separate Telangana state in Andhra Pradesh, despite the national leadership opposing.
 E.g., Congress aligning with Janata Dal to form a govt., despite the bitterness between both
* Electoral calculations
 Taken a preference over ideology e.g., opposing the Goods and Services Tax as an opposition party, but was in favour when in power

How the party system has fragmented
* INC
 Suffered a range of internal factions - representing their own respective interests or regional groups
 E.g., 1960s saw a visceral division between Indira Gandhi and Morarji Desai
 Factionalism has pushed diff. leaders to compete for over, pushing asides the grievances of the masses
* BJP
 Different ideological perspectives or regional interests have caused internal factions
 Their strong presence in several states
* CPI and CPI(M)
 Multiple factions represented diff. ideological perspectives

Emergence of caste-based and regional parties
* Regional parties - representing local interests they have assumed a local identity which attracts a large support base
 E.g., in West Bengal, Congress dominance has been undermined by the Trinamool Congress
* Gained support by appealing to the Bengali identity, and benefited from the lack of support shown towards the CPI due to anti-incumbency sentiment
* Tamil Nadu; DMK and AIADMK have replaced Congress by dominating state politics
* Caste-based parties
 Failure of traditional political parties
* Post-indep. saw the INC and CPI being led by upper-caste elites; those below were often marginalised
* Felt excluded and ignored
* Lower castes mobilised through social movements, seeking improved political representation and resource access
 Evolved
* These caste-based organisations evolved into political parties; involved in state and national level elections
* E.g., Bahujan Samaj Party interests
 BSP
* Based on social justice and equality for Dalits who reside as the bottom of the caste hierarchy
* Successful - formed governments in Uttar Pradesh

Impact at grassroot levels
* Disruption of Governance
 Failure to implement policy and delays causes a disruption in the services provided to the public, the quality can also be poor
 Long term - underdeveloped the region and damage EG
* Polarisation of society
 Along multiple lines e.g., caste, religion, ethnic
 w/out a stable political presence, identity politics can become more favourable in an attempt to secure support
 The exclusion of certain demographics from their community can create social unrest and conflicts
* Hindering democracy
 At the grassroots, frequent change and a lack of stability can reduce voter turnout and undermine the legitimacy of these democratic institutions
* Undermining dvlp
 The rise of criminalisation and unstable govt. can harm EG and discourage investment

Question 3

Atul Kohli
* Crisis Indian democracy has faced
* Role of political leaders
* Strong civil society

Answer 3

Crisis Indian democracy has faced
* economic downturns, political violence, and regional conflicts
* Economic crises
o Intense envir. -> high inflation, eco. stagnation and a BOP crisis
o As expected, economic issues crested a wave of political instability and the population began to question democratic insti.
* Political violence
o Taken the form of terrorist attacks, insurgencies and communal riots
o Challenged law and order and threatened the govt. ability to maintain social cohesion and protect citizens from harm
* Regional conflicts
o Higher demands for regional autonomy stems from a long history of diversity within India, and discrimination being a by-product of cultural/ethnic/religious differences
o Various demands of separate states and arguments over resource allocation
o Conflicts undermine the power and integrity of the state from a failure to create social harmony
* Corruption
o Internal decay - erodes trust and undermines the rule of law by denouncing the entire legal system as an elitist hoax
o Perpetuates ineq. and the interests and concerns of the public are not important to officials in positions of power who are seeking personal gain.

Role of political leaders
* What separates India from Bangladesh or Pakistan, is the character of their rulers, giving democracy a better chance at survival
* Navigation
o Had the ability to effectively navigate a complex and diverse landscape to create an efficient govt.
o Built coalitions which included various perspectives to prevent the marginalisation of minorities -> outlet for dissent, rather than resentment and hostility rising over time and engaged with the issue of diversity in India in a proactive way
o Political consensus has been more easier to achieve and enhanced the legitimacy and stability of govt.
* Traits of leaders
o Charismatic, with an ability to communicate effectively - inspire the population through their speeches
o Way to connect with voters and create a large base for support and trust - encourages participation, feel seen and heard and represented - vital following imperial rule
* Ability to compromise
o In the face of conflicting interests, these leaders have been committed enough to democratic principles and the survival of democracy in general they have made difficult compromises
 For example, they would inevib. Be faced with compromises when navigating the complex web of religious and cultural pluralism in India which characterised not only society but govt. too
 Include various perspectives and interests
* Ability to adapt
o Faced with an onset of various domestic and external challenges and threats following indep., they have evolved and adapted with policies and programmes to ensure democratic survival
o Willingness to learn from policy failure, means they had a better chance at creating a more suitable form of democracy

Strong civil society
* Having a strong and participatory society is essential in the creation and maintenance of democracy
* Role in accountability
o Increase pressure on the govt. to act upon certain issues which are affecting the public e.g.., NGOs or social movements
o Increase transparency and accountability of the govt. by acting as a check on their balance of power
* Social inclusion
o These organisations have the ability to represent those who feel most marginalised and silenced .: disvtg. groups have an avenue to air their dissent and concerns, rather than resentment and hostility rising
o E.g., women and Dalits - given a voice
* Promotion of democratic values
o They share dissent and concern in a safe way, creating a culture of tolerance and pluralism - in a country as diverse as India, this is fund. to social harmony, national unity and the continuation of democracy
o Acted as a bulwark against authoritarian tendencies which would undermine democratic practices, and have continuously promoted democratic norms
 Society need to be involved otherwise a state can easily slip into authoritarianism
* Role in economic dvlp.
o Societal organisation provide social services fund. to the functioning of a healthy and productive society
o E.g., education and healthcare

Culture of democratic debate and dissent
* Accountability
o Politicians cannot evade accountability of their actions as public debate has freq. exposed corruption in govt. -> forced a change in behv. and prevented malfeasance form becoming the norm
o Public scrutiny and criticism is a sign of a healthy democracy -> freedom to express dissent prevents the rise of coups and regional local leaders
* Marginalised and distg.
o Forum to promote their interests which have been traditionally ignored - demand attention from the state and a fair allocation of resources
o Have a voice in the wider political process .: have reprstv. Involved in policy decision directly affecting their lives - feel more heard and accommodated, more likely to preserve these insti.
* Respect of democratic values
o Open debate has allowed citizens to exercise democratic values e.g., tolerance, pluralism and other rights
o Actively obstruct the potential of authoritarian policies and promoted civil liberties
* Experimentation
o Ongoing conversations have created an innovative and modernising envir. for policies which are more inclusive and accepted by various groups of people
o Directly challenge traditional ideas and approaches by proposing new methods - political leaders willingness to compromise and adapt and accept they’ve made mistakes
o Allowed them to continuously adapt to changing circumstances and challenges