Relationships

Question 1

Sexual selection

Answer 1

Drives partner preferences
- Males & females choose partners to maximise reproductive success
- Individuals with traits that maximise reproductive success are more likely to survive & pass on their genes

Question 2

Anisogamy

Answer 2

The difference between how often men and women are able to reproduce. Leads;
- Men to use intra-sexual selection
- Women to use inter-sexual selection

Question 3

Intra-sexual selection

Answer 3

Members of one sex (Typically male) compete for access to the other sex. This leads to male-female dimorphism

Question 4

Dimorphism

Answer 4

Accentuation of secondary sexual characteristics in those with greater reproductive fitness

Question 5

Anisogamy — Suggestion for men

Answer 5

The best evolutionary strategy is to have as many partners as possible
- Males may engage in mate guarding to prevent cuckoldry (Men are fearful of having to raise another mans child)

Question 6

Inter-sexual selection

Answer 6

Members from one sex (usually female) choose from available prospective mates (Usually males) according to attractiveness

Question 7

Anisogamy — Suggestions for women

Answer 7

The best evolutionary strategy is to be selective when choosing a partner
- Tend to seek males that display the characteristics of physical health, high status and resources
Therefore they can provide and protect

Question 8

Strengths of the evolutionary explanation for partner preferences

Answer 8

• Buss conducted a survey of 10,000 adults in 33 countries and found that females value resource based characteristics, while men valued good looks and younger partners
• Clark and Hatfield conducted a study where male and female students approached fellow students (of the opposite sex) and asked them to go to bed with them. 75% of men accepted, while 0% of women did, however 50% agreed to a date

Question 9

Weaknesses of the evolutionary explanation for partner preferences

Answer 9

• Determinsic & suggest we have little free will in choosing our partners
• Makes little attempt to explain other types of relationships eg homosexual, and cultural variations exist eg arranged marriage
• Approach is socially sensitive as it promotes traditionally sexist views regarding what is ‘natural’ and what is desired. Also ignores the existence of contraception

Question 10

Self- disclosure

Answer 10

Revealing personal information (Thoughts, feelings, experiences) about yourself to another person

• Central concept in social penetration theory (Altman and Taylor)
• This proposes that gradually revealing emotions & experiences to another person increases trust & attraction

Question 11

What does self disclosure look like at the beginning of a relationship, and after some time within the relationship?

Answer 11

Beginning: People only disclose superficial things

As time passes this deepens, as people begin to reveal more intimate details

Self-disclosing too quickly can reduce attraction

Question 12

Reciprocal self disclosure

Answer 12

People expect the same level of self disclosure as given

Question 13

Strengths of self disclosure

Answer 13

• Altman and Taylor found that self disclosure on the first date is inappropriate & the person is seen as maladjusted and not likeable
• Kito supported that self disclosure is present across cultures. Kito found that the level of self disclosure was high for both Japanese and American hetero couples

Question 14

Weaknesses of self disclosure

Answer 14

• Sprecher found research evidence that the level of self disclosure received is the best predication of likening and loving, rather than the amount of self disclosure given — This goes against reciprocal self disclosure
• It seems unlikely that attraction is based off self disclosure alone. Self disclosure might be an important element but other factors, such as physical attraction, similarity of attitudes, and complementarity of needs might also be needed to increase attraction

Question 15

Physical attractiveness

Answer 15

Men place a great deal of importance on physical attractiveness when choosing both a long and short term female partner

Women place more emphasis on physical attractiveness in the short term than the long term

Physical attractiveness varies across cultures & time

Question 16

Halo effect

Answer 16

When the general impression of a person is incorrectly formed from one characteristic alone (eg physical attractiveness). Physically attractive people are seen as more sociable, optimistic and successful. People tend to behave positively towards physically attractive people and this creates a self fulfilling prophecy wherein the person behaves more positively due to the attention

Question 17

Strength of the halo effect

Answer 17

Palmer and Peterson (2012) found that physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgable than unattractive people. The halo effect was so powerful it was found to persist even when the pps found out the attractive person had no knowledge of politics

Question 18

Weaknesses of the halo effect

Answer 18

Towhey (1979) asked male and female pps to rate how much they liked an individual based on a photograph. Participants. Also completed a MACHO scale (measure sexist attitudes/behaviours). Pps who scored high on the MACHO scale were more influenced by physical attractiveness

Question 19

The matching hypothesis

Answer 19

Most people would prefer to form a relationship with the most attractive person possible, but due to fear of rejection will instead pursue someone of equal attractiveness to them

Question 20

Strengths of the matching hypothesis

Answer 20

Fangold (1988) carried out a meta analysis of 17 studies using real life couples. He established a strong positive correlation between the partners rating of physical attractiveness as predicted by the matching hypothesis

Question 21

Weaknesses of the matching hypothesis

Answer 21

• Walter (1966) invited first year students to attend a dance, they were randomly matched to their partners, but a panel secretly judged their attractiveness. Students were asked if they found their partner attractive and if they would like to go on a second date with them. Students expressed higher appreciation if their partner was attractive, regardless to their own attractiveness
• Physically attractive people can form a relationship with an unattractive person due to a rebalance of traits, whereby the less attractive person makes up for this with traits such as money, personality or status. This is called complex matching whereby a very attractive person forms a relationship with an unattractive person

Question 22

Filter theory

Answer 22

Kerchoff and David (1962) - People use filtering to reduce the field of available partners to desirable partners

Social demography -> Similarity in attitude -> Complementarity of needs

Question 23

Strengths of filter theory

Answer 23

• Taylor found that 85% of Americans who got married in 2008 married someone from their own ethnic group, supporting the social demography aspect of filter theory
• Hoyle found that perceived attitude similarity can predict attraction more accurately than actual attitude similarity

Question 24

Weaknesses of filter theory

Answer 24

• Levinger conducted a study of 330 couples & found no evidence that similarity of attitudes / Complementarity of needs was important when looking at how permanent the relationship was
• Anderson found in his longitudinal study of cohabiting partners that they became more similar over time, increasing attraction (emotional convergence)

Question 25

Social exchange theory

Answer 25

Economic theory of relationships
- Based on the idea that we monitor rewards & costs from a relationship
- Those who offer rewards are attractive
- Relationships that are mutually balanced will succeed

Question 26

Comparison level

Answer 26

We compare our present relationships to previous relationships

Question 27

Comparison level for alternatives

Answer 27

We compare our present partner with people around us who could potentially be partners

Question 28

Strengths of social exchange theory

Answer 28

• Social exchange theory has practical applications. Integrated couples therapy helps partners break negative patterns & decrease negative exchanges. 66% of couples reported significant improvements
• Different people perceive rewards & costs differently, so this accounts for individual differences

Question 29

Weaknesses of social exchange theory

Answer 29

• Critics of this theory disagree that people spend time monitoring the rewards & costs of a relationship, for instance we only look at comparison levels when dissatisfied
• Rooted in the behaviourist approach, which focuses on rewards & operant conditioning. However, some relationships have little rewards but many costs and still continue

Question 30

Equity theory

Answer 30

Economic model based on the idea of fairness for each partner. Emphasises the need for balanced cost/effort

• If people over benefit they may feel guilt/pity
• If people under benefit they may feel angry/sad

An imbalance may be tolerated if both accept the situation

Question 31

Strengths of equity theory

Answer 31

• DeMaris studies 1500 couples & found that there was a high risk of divorce if women were under benefiting
• Brosnan found that female monkeys became angry if they were denied a prize, especially if they saw another monkey receive the prize as well. The ideas of equity are rooted in our ancient origins

Question 32

Weaknesses of equity theory

Answer 32

• More applicable to individualistic cultures as people might be more conferenced with equal costs & rewards. However, in collectivist cultures extended family networks * family values might be more important
• Mills and Clark said it is not possible to assess equity as many rewards & costs are emotional/physiological and cannot be easily quantified. If we attempt to measure them, then this may diminish the quality of love

Question 33

Rusbults investment model

Answer 33

Saw commitment as a key factor on sustaining a relationship
- Commitment depends on satisfaction, comparison with alternatives and investment

Question 34

Intrinsic investment

Answer 34

Resources put directly into the relationship eg emotions

Question 35

Investment model - Satisfaction

Answer 35

Satisfaction is determined by available alternatives (better alternatives = less satisfaction)

Question 36

Investment model - Investment

Answer 36

Investment acts as a deterrent to leaving a relationship

Question 37

Extrinsic investment

Answer 37

Resources arising out of the relationship eg children, mutual possessions

Question 38

Strengths of the investment model

Answer 38

• Van Lange studies students from Taiwan & the Netherlands and found that high commitment levels in a relationship were related to high satisfaction, low quality of alternatives & high investment size
• The invest model can explain commitment in different relationships. Rusbult administered investment model scale questionnaires to participants in homosexual relationships & found all factors of the investment model to be important

Question 39

Weaknesses of the investment model

Answer 39

• Lin criticises the investment model for not taking gender differences into account. Lin found that females tend to report higher satisfaction, poorer quality of alternatives, greater investment & stronger commitment in relationships compared to males

Question 40

Ducks phase model of relationship breakdown

Answer 40

1. Intra-psychic processes
2. Dyadic processes
3. Social processes
4. Grave dressing processes

Question 41

Intra-psychic processes

Answer 41

Characterised by the dissatisfied partner privately thinking about problems in the relationship. The dissatisfied partner focuses on their partners faults and the fact that they are under benefitting

Question 42

Intra-psychic processes

Answer 42

Characterised by the dissatisfied partner privately thinking about problems in the relationship. The dissatisfied partner focuses on their partners faults and the fact that they are under benefitting

Question 43

Dyadic processes

Answer 43

The dissatisfied partner privately communicates with their partner about the fact that they are dissatisfied. Both partners think about investments they have made. There could be reconciliation if the other partners accepts the feelings & changes behaviour

Question 44

Social processes

Answer 44

The breakup is made public to friends & family. Advice is given and alliances are made. This can involve criticising former partners & scape goating. Younger adults may experience a breakdown, whereas older adults may be resigned to not finding a new partner

Question 45

Grave dressing process

Answer 45

As the relationship dies & breaks down there is a need to mourn & justify our actions, as well as create an account of the relationship & why it broke down

Question 46

Strengths of Ducks phase model

Answer 46

• Improvements have been made, with the added resurrection phase, this is where the person engages in personal growth and gets prepared for new romantic relationships
• Social exchange theory supports this model, as if a relationship has high costs and minimal rewards the relationship would breakdown

Question 47

Weaknesses of Ducks phase model

Answer 47

• Kassin found that females emphasise unhappiness, lack of emotional support and incompatibility as reasons for a relationship breakdown, whereas men emphasise a lack of fun/sex
• Overly simplistic as it reduces the complex phenomenon of relationships into four simple stages as in the real world relationship breakdown may result in make up, break up, or it may happen out of order

Question 48

Hyper-Personal Model

Answer 48

Walther argued that there is increased self-disclosure in virtual relationships and this means that virtual relationships become deeper/more intimate more quickly than face-to-face relationships. Virtual relationships can also end more quickly, however, as it is difficult to sustain the same level of intense self-disclosure. Individuals online can engage in selective self-presentation where they only show/reveal what they choose to reveal. Participants in online conversations have more time to edit their responses to present themselves in a more positive light. Projecting a positive image will make a virtual partner want to disclose more personal information, increasing the intensity of the relationship

Question 49

Strengths of the Hyper-Personal Model

Answer 49

Whitty and Joinson conducted research which clearly demonstrates the effect of being online on self-disclosure. They discovered that in online discussion forums both questions and answers tend to be more direct, probing and intimate than in everyday face-to-face interactions, as the hyper-personal model would predict.

Question 50

Weaknesses of the Hyper-Personal Model

Answer 50

McKenna and Bargh found that relationships which begin online are more durable than other relationships, rather than ending more quickly as the hyper-personal model suggests. This is because of more open self-disclosure early on in the relationship

Self-disclosure varies depending on the online context. People disclose more on gaming sites than they do on dating websites because the latter is more likely to lead to face-to-face encounters in the future.

Question 51

Reduced Cue Theory

Answer 51

Spoull and Kiesler suggested that self-disclosure in virtual relationships might be less open and honest than face-to-face ones. In real life we rely on a lot of subtle cues, such as facial expressions and tone of voice, which are absent in virtual relationships. According to reduced cue theory, reduction in nonverbal communication leads to deindividuation because it diminishes people’s feelings of individual identity and brings on behaviours that people usually restrain themselves from displaying, such as aggression. This may make online communications more aggressive, and the consequence of this is less self-disclosure from other people, as they becoming the victims of aggression.

Question 52

Weaknesses of the Reduced Cue Theory

Answer 52

Reduced cue theory was developed when social media lacked face-to-face interaction, meaning they were much less rich in non-verbal communication than real life interactions. However, advanced technology allows for live interaction, which is much more similar to real life interactions.

Non-verbal communication is not absent from virtual relationships, the cues are just different, e.g. emoticons are used as substitutes for facial expression and intonation. The timing of responses is also an important form of non-verbal communication (Walther and Tidwell 1995)

Question 53

Absence of Gating in Virtual Relationships

Answer 53

Virtual relationships are not affected by some of the usual barriers (gates) that constrain relationship formation in real-life encounters. Factors such as distance, lack of physical attractiveness, social awkwardness are not as important online. This creates more opportunities for shy or less attractive people to develop romantic relationships. The absence of gating online also means that people can establish virtual identities they could never create face-to-face. For example, a shy person can become more outgoing

Question 54

Strengths of Absence of Gating in Virtual Relationships

Answer 54

Zahoa et al. claim that the absence of gating has positive effects on people’s offline relationships. People create an online identity that is appreciated by others, and this enhances their overall self-image and increases the quality of their face-to-face relationships as well.

Baker and Oswald suggest that the absence of gating in virtual relationships may be particularly useful for shy people. They asked 207 male and female participants to complete a questionnaire, scoring their answers in terms of shyness, internet use and perception of quality of their friendships. They found that those people who scored highly on shyness and internet use, perceived the quality of their friendships as high. The findings imply that as online communication helps people to overcome their shyness, so the quality of
their face-to-face communication also improves.

Question 55

Weaknesses of Absence of Gating in Virtual Relationships

Answer 55

Most of the research examining gating was conducted in the late 1990s and early 2000s. As technology is changing rapidly, so is the nature of online relationships; therefore, psychological research in this area risks becoming outdated by the time it is published. This lowers the temporal validity of research into virtual relationships

People are involved in both online and offline relationships every day; it’s not an either/or situation. This means that there are fewer differences between virtual relationships and face to face relationships than research seems to suggest, and research examining virtual relationships often fails to take into account the effect of these relationships on a person’s offline interactions, and vice versa.

Question 56

Parasocial Relationships

Answer 56

Parasocial relationships: One-sided relationships with a celebrity where a fan knows everything about the subject of their adoration and feels very close to them, but there is no chance of reciprocity. Levels of Parasocial Relationships;
1. Entertainment-Social: Most people engage in parasocial relationships at some point in their lives, but most stay at this first level. Celebrities are seen as a source of entertainment and a topic for light-hearted gossiping with friends.

2. Intense-Personal: This is a deeper level of parasocial relationships. At this level a person has a private obsession and feeling of personal connection with a celebrity. For example, they may see them as a soulmate and they have an intense interest in the celebrity’s personal life, such as their dress sense or food they like
3. Borderline-Pathological: This is the most intense level of parasocial relationships. At this level, a person has obsessive fantasies about the celebrity and spends large sums of money to obtain memorabilia. It is also usual for people to believe that if only they were given a chance to meet their favourite celebrity in person, their feelings would be reciprocated. They may show uncontrollable/extreme behaviours such as stalking.

Question 57

Absorption Addiction Model

Answer 57

The absorption-addiction model argues that parasocial relationships focused on a celebrity make up for inadequacies/deficiencies/dissatisfaction in a person’s real life relationships and provide them with a sense of identity. People with an addictive nature will escalate through the levels of parasocial relationships until it becomes a total pre-occupation
Absorption: People with weaker personal identity may become totally preoccupied consumed with the life of a celebrity and begin to identify with them.
Addiction: The person seeks even greater involvement so the parasocial relationship becomes all consuming.

Question 58

Strengths of Absorption Addiction Model

Answer 58

Stalkers often have a history of failed sexual relationships at the time of the stalking. Stalking in such cases is a reaction to social incompetence, isolation and loneliness.

Maltby et al. measured the relationship between parasocial relationships and body image. They found that teenage girls who engaged in parasocial relationships tended to have a poor body image, especially if they particularly admired a celebrity’s physical appearance.

Question 59

Weaknesses of Absorption Addiction Model

Answer 59

The model is better suited to describing levels of parasocial relationships than explaining how people develop these attitudes. This model attempts to establish principles of behaviour and misses out on insight into reasons

Most research into parasocial relationships is correlational. This means that cause and effect cannot be clearly established, lowering the validity. For example, it may as be that girls who already have a poor body image tend to engage in a more intensive level of parasocial relationships to enhance their self-esteem.

Question 60

Attachment Theory

Answer 60

Parasocial relationships can be linked to attachment problems in childhood (insecure-resistant attachment). Several characteristics of parasocial relationships are linked to attachment e.g. the protest at the loss of a parasocial attachment figure is similar to separation protest seen in infants. Bowlby noted that poor attachment led to problems later in life e.g. affectionless psychopath, delinquency etc. People with childhood attachment problems form parasocial relationships to meet their need for attachment as they don’t involve the same fear of rejection as real relationships

Question 61

Strengths of Attachment Theory

Answer 61

Individuals with an insecure-resistant attachment style were more likely to engage in parasocial relationships and insecure-avoidant individuals were the least likely to engage in parasocial relationships. This suggests there is a relationship between early attachment and parasocial relationships.

Adults with insecure attachment types had positive attitudes to obsessive behaviours and stalking. Pathological attachment types tend to engage in stalking which implies stalking is related to childhood attachment.

Question 62

Weaknesses of Attachment Theory

Answer 62

Studies into the link between infant attachment type and parasocial relationships rely on participants’ memories. Such recollections are likely to be flawed as our memories of the past aren’t always accurate, meaning the studies are not valid.

Parasocial relationships can be positive and not just about fulfilling attachment needs. For example, they allow a safe exploration of emotions