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Psychopathology Flashcards

1
Q

Definition of deviation from social norms

A

Any behaviour that doesn’t follow accepted social patterns or rules
- However, norms, values and accepted ways to behave vary from one culture or time period to the next

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2
Q

2 types of rules

A

Explicit ie. Breaking the law

Codes of conduct ie. Dress codes in the workplace

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3
Q

How can deviation from social norms be used?

A

Can help identify if a person is struggling with a mental disorder

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4
Q

Disadvantages of deviation from social norms

A

Context must be taken into account (eg naked on the high street vs a nudist beach)

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5
Q

Advantages of deviation from social norms

A

Distinguishes a difference between desirable and non desirable behaviour. It’s aim is to protect members of the public from the effects of abnormal behaviour

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6
Q

Definition of failure to function adequately (AO1)

A

A model of abnormality based on the fact that a person is unable to cope with day to day life, such as having a job. This will impact on their personal, social and occupational life

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7
Q

Global assessment of functioning scale (GAF)

A

7 Criteria that can help define mental abnormality
The higher the criteria, the more abnormal the person (7 is highest)
The lower the criteria the more normal the person is (0 the lowest)
This model allows psychologists to assess the degree to which someone is normal/abnormal

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8
Q

Mnemonics for 7 criteria of the GAF

A

SUMOVIV
S- Suffering
U- Unpredictability and lose of control
M- Maladaptiveness
O- Observer discomfort
V- vividness and unconventionality
I- irrationality and incomprehensibility
V- Violation of moral and ideal standards

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9
Q

Disadvantages of failure to function adequately

A
  • Abnormality is not always accompanied by dysfunction. Some people possessing a psychological abnormality do not meet the 7 criteria eg Harold Shipman who committed many mass murders. Similarly people who may not appear to function adequately might be having a bad day
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10
Q

Advantages of failure to function adequately

A
  • Using the GAF means that psychologists can accurately assess the degree of abnormality and how well their patient is coping with daily life
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11
Q

Statistical infrequency (AO1)

A

Statistical infrequency occurs when an individual possesses a less common characteristic than most of the population. The behaviours displayed are statistically rare, for example being extremely intelligent with an IQ score over 130.

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12
Q

An example of statistical infrequency

A

For example when looking at IQ scores, the average IQ score is 100. Scores that are significantly higher than 100 (e.g. 130), or significantly lower than 100 (e.g. 70) are quite rare or statistically infrequent.
• Approximately 65% of the population will have an IQ score between 85-115
• We can display the data gained from IQ scores in a Normal Distribution curve

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13
Q

Left skewed meaning

A

‘Negative Skewness’
- A lot of high scores / an easy test
- Mean & median < mode

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14
Q

Right skewed meaning

A

‘Positive skewness’
- A lot of low scores / a difficult test
- Mean & median > mode

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15
Q

Positives of statistical infrequency

A
  • To have an IQ score over 130 is just as unusual or statistically infrequent as having an IQ score below 70. However, an IQ score over 130 is not a negative behaviour, but is actually quite positive and desirable! Just because a behaviour is statistically infrequent does not mean that the person is abnormal and requires treatment. Statistical infrequency can be a good thing
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16
Q

Negatives of statistical infrequency

A
  • It involves labelling some people as abnormal, and this is not beneficial. A person with a low IQ of 70 might be labelled in a negative manner by other members of society, and this could have a negative effect upon them and how they view themselves. It could affect self confidence and self esteem and lead to further problems
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17
Q

Deviation from Ideal Mental Health (AO1):

A
  • Abnormality is related to the lack of “contented existence.” Therefore people who deviate from having an ideal or, “optimal” mental health can be classed as abnormal.
  • All should strive towards ‘self-actualisation’
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18
Q

Mnemonic for Marie Jahodas 6 criteria

A

APPIES

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19
Q

What does APPIES stand for?

A

Autonomy
Perception of reality
Personal growth
Integration
Environmental mastery
Self attitudes

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20
Q

Positives of Deviation from Ideal Mental Health

A
  • It can be viewed as being positive and productive. It focuses on ideal or optimal criteria that we should all aim and strive for in order to be psychologically healthy. It could be seen as a therapeutic goal that humans should strive for and aim to achieve. Self actualisation is a positive trait that every human should try to accomplish if possible.
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21
Q

Disadvantages of Deviation from Ideal Mental Health

A
  • Deviation from ideal mental health can be viewed as problematic. The six criteria are based on abstract concepts and ideals, and are difficult to define and measure.
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22
Q

The behavioural characteristics of phobias (action)

A

Avoidance
Endurance (freeze/faint)
Disruption of functioning
Panic

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23
Q

The emotional characteristics of phobias (feelings)

A

Fear
Panic and anxiety
Emotions (General)

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24
Q

The cognitive characteristics of phobias (thinking)

A

Irrational
Insight
Cognitive distortions
Selective attention

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25
Q

Definition of a phobia

A

A mental disorder characterised by high levels of stimulus
- The anxiety interferes with normal living

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26
Q

Phobias can be learnt through

A

Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning

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27
Q

The two process model by Mower

A
  1. Onset of phobia
    - can occur directly through classical conducting or indirectly through social learning
  2. Maintenance of phobia
    - operant conditioning occurs whereby the feared object is avoided (negative reinforcement) and this reduces anxiety, becoming a reward
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28
Q

Case study for classical conditioning

A

Wagner and Rayner (Little Albert) in 1920

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29
Q

Classical Conditioning:

A

This method of learning involves building up an association between two different stimuli so that learning takes place.

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30
Q

Positives of classical conditioning

A
  • King (1998) supports the ideas proposed by classical conditioning. From reviewing case studies he has found that children acquire phobias by encountering traumatic experiences with the phobic object e.g. children who have got bitten by a dog, might develop a phobia of dogs.
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31
Q

Negatives of classical conditioning

A
  • The Little Albert study can be criticised because it was only conducted once and the findings have not been repeated (not very reliable). Therefore it could be questioned whether the same results would be gained if this study was to be repeated when investigating whether phobias can be learnt via classical conditioning. The study could not be repeated nowadays due to ethical concerns
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32
Q

Social Learning Theory/Modelling: AO1

A

This is based on observational learning whereby young children might observe a reaction that their parents or family have to a particular situation, and the child will copy this behaviour.

For instance if we watch someone have a traumatic experience for instance they get bitten by a dog and start screaming, then we might imitate this behaviour and also become scared of dogs, which means we develop a phobia by observational learning.

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33
Q

Operant conditioning (this helps to maintain the phobia): AO1

A

This method involves learning a new response (phobia) that can result in reinforcement. Operant conditioning helps to explain how phobias can be maintained.

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34
Q

Advantages of the two process model

A
  • Bandura supports the idea of Social learning theory. A piece of research was conducted whereby a person acted as if they were in pain when a buzzer sounded, and participants had to watch this reaction. Later on the participants were given the chance to hear the sound of the buzzer and they showed the same response
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35
Q

Disadvantages of the two process model

A
  • Social learning theory can be successful in explaining how learning a phobia can occur in animals and young children. However, social learning theory is not very strong in explaining how adults can learn to have phobias. Therefore the behavioural model is limited to only explaining learning in young children and animals only
  • The behavioural model/two process model is limited as it ignores other factors that could cause phobias. The Behavioural model focuses on learning and the environment, but would not take into account biological or evolutionary factors that could cause phobias. Some people might have more of a genetic vulnerability to develop phobias than others and the behavioural model would ignore this
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36
Q

Disadvantages of deviation from social norms (AO3)

A
  • A disadvantage of using deviation as a definition of abnormality is that the definition does not always indicate that the person has an abnormality. Psychologists must be cautious when judging if someone is odd/eccentric or has an abnormality
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37
Q

Advantages of deviation from social norms

A
  • It can be used as an indicator if a person is suffering with mental disorders, and may require further tests or help, and it may be useful when used alongside other tests (especially when viewed with context)
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38
Q

How to classify if a person is suffering from psychological distress or discomfort

A

If a person seeks psychiatric/psychological help they could be classified as suffering from psychological distress or discomfort.

  • To recognise that they are not functioning adequately could be a sign of abnormality eg if
    someone cannot fulfil their obligations of getting a job then they may not be functioning
    adequately
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39
Q

Disadvantages of failure to function adequately

A
  • The 7 criteria can be problematic as they are difficult to measure and analyse. The model is very subjective, for example how can psychologists judge if a person is really suffering? There may be times when some of the criteria should be adhered to for example when mourning the death of someone, suffering is to be expected
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40
Q

Advantages of failure to function adequately

A
  • The GAF can also be used as a general test to determine if a patient needs further testing for an abnormality or mental issue.
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41
Q

Positives of statistical infrequency

A
  • Judgements are based on objective, scientific and unbiased data that can help indicate abnormality and normality, (for example the IQ scores). The results from these tests can indicate whether someone needs psychological help and assistance e.g. an IQ score below 70 could indicate mental disability
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42
Q

Negatives of statistical infrequency

A
  • There seems to be a subjective cut off point between statistical infrequency (abnormality) and normality. We need to decide the dividing line between where normality and abnormality starts and ends, and this is very subjective, for instance an IQ of 70 is abnormal and statistically infrequent, but an IQ score of 71 is normal? The cut off point can be questioned.
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43
Q

Positives of Deviation from Ideal Mental Health

A
  • It can highlight and target areas of dysfunction that the patient can work on and improve in their life. This can be very important when treating different types of disorders, for instance people who do not possess the criteria of “self attitudes” (and therefore might not have a positive self attitude) might be showing signs of depression. This can therefore highlight the area of dysfunction to both the patient and the psychologist.
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44
Q

Disadvantages of Deviation from Ideal Mental Health

A
  • Deviation from ideal mental health is problematic in the fact that very few people can actually achieve all of the six criteria at any one time. Therefore many of us would be classed as abnormal; and we could argue that it would be “normal” to be “abnormal.” To sustain and meet all of the 6 criteria at any one time could be deemed as quite impossible or very difficult, and it would be an ideal that would be very hard to meet.
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45
Q

Negatives of classical conditioning

A
  • Some people do have a traumatic experience such as a car accident. However, many people do not then go on to develop a phobia (e.g. of cars/driving), so classical conditioning does not explain how all phobias develop. The opposite is true for some phobias, some people are scared or an object, but they have not had a negative experience or even encountered the object before e.g. snakes.
  • The psychologist Menzies criticises the behavioural model, especially the idea of classical conditioning. He studied people that had hydrophobia, and he found that only 2% of his sample had encountered a negative experience with water (due to classical conditioning).
    Therefore; how did these people get their phobia of water if they had not learnt it? Indicating that learning cannot be a factor in causing the development of the phobia
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46
Q

Social Learning Theory/Modelling: Minneka

A
  • The psychologist Minneka found that when one monkey in a cage showed a fear response to snakes, the other monkeys in the cage copied this response and also showed a fear response to snakes too. This example can be applied to humans.
47
Q

Negative reinforcement

A

For instance if someone is scared of snakes, they will try to avoid snakes in order to reduce the risk that they will feel fear.

48
Q

Positive reinforcement

A

By avoiding snakes and not feeling fear, this is rewarding. Therefore the avoidance of snakes continues.

49
Q

Advantages of the two process model

A
  • The two step process has received praise because it involves two clear steps that highlight how phobias are learned and how they are maintained. They are learnt by powerful classical conditioning or social learning theory, and then are maintained by operant conditioning (either positive or negative reinforcement).

The process seems an accurate way in explaining how phobias can be learnt overall

50
Q

Systematic desensitisation

A

A behavioural therapy developed by Wolpe (1958) to reduce/diminish phobias by using classical conditioning to replace the anxieties and nervousness with calm and relaxed responses

51
Q

Reciprocal inhibition

A

The central idea of SD - it is impossible to feel two opposite emotions at the same time

52
Q

Counter conditioning

A

Learning to remain relaxed in the presence of a phobia

53
Q

The order of the processes in SD

A
  1. Hierarchy of fear
  2. Relaxation techniques
  3. Gradual exposure
54
Q

The hierarchy of fear (SD)

A

A hierarchy of fear is constructed by the therapist and the patient, situations involving the phobic object are ranked from least to most fearful.

Eg A phobia of snakes
Saying the word snake -> looking at a picture of a snake -> Seeing a snake in a tank -> eventually holding a snake

55
Q

Deep muscle relaxation techniques

A

Deep breathing
Progressive muscular relaxation (PMR)
The relaxation response

56
Q

Progressive muscular relaxation (PMR)

A

Tensing up a group of muscles as much as possible, holding them then releasing

Begins from feet and goes up

  • May also be asked to breath deeply, meditate or focus on images
57
Q

Gradual exposure (SD)

A

Introduced to the phobic object and gradually works up the get hierarchy while also using relaxation techniques

When they feel comfortable with one stage they move onto the next

58
Q

Advantages of SD

A
  • Supports the use of SD to eradicate ‘Little Peter’s’ phobia. A white rabbit was presented to Little Peter at gradually closer distances and each time his anxiety levels lessoned. Eventually he developed affection for the white rabbit, which extended to all white fluffy objects. This shows how SD can work to eliminate phobias
  • SD had the advantages of being a less traumatic therapy for phobias than other behavioural therapies, like flooding, where the patient has to confront their phobias directly. Therefore SD has less ethical implications (less psychological harm) than other types of behavioural therapies, and it is less upsetting for the patient to endure
59
Q

Disdvantages of SD

A
  • A disadvantage of SD is that it is not always practical for individuals to be desensitized by confronting real life phobic situations. Real life step-by-step situations are difficult to arrange and control, e.g. someone is scared of sharks! Therefore SD might be very difficult to apply to real life situations/phobias and this can question the effectiveness of the therapy
  • Behavioural treatments do have the advantage that they address the symptoms of phobias. However some critics believe the symptoms are merely the tip of the iceberg and claim that underlying causes of the phobia will remain, and in the future the symptoms will return or symptom substitution will occur, when other abnormal behaviours replaced the ones that have been removed
60
Q

Flooding

A
  • Flooding involves directly and immediately exposing the phobic patient to their feared object in an immediate situation. Beforehand, the patient would be taught relaxation techniques such as deep muscle relaxation, deep breathing and meditation > there is not a gradual build up
  • This can be done “in vivo” which means they do this for real, or it could be virtual; by imagining the situation.
61
Q

Is flooding ethical

A

Flooding is ethical, even though it can cause a great deal of initial psychological harm; the patient would have to give their fully informed consent so that they were fully prepared for the flooding session. Patients are given the choice of either having SD or flooding. Flooding therapy sessions usually last 2-3 hours, which is much longer than SD sessions.

62
Q

How quickly does flooding stop fear responses

A

Flooding stops phobic responses very quickly. This is because the patient does not have the option for any avoidance behavior. They might quickly learn that the phobic object is harmless, and therefore extinction occurs. In some cases the patient might achieve relaxation in the presence of their phobic object because they are so exhausted by their own fear response! They become so exhausted that the phobic response diminishes.

63
Q

Advantage of flooding

A
  • Flooding has the advantage of being cost effective, especially when being compared to cognitive behavioural therapies which take months or years to work and rid the person of their phobia. Flooding seems to be a quick therapy for phobias which is useful as it means that patients are free of their symptoms as soon as possible, and this makes the treatment cost effective and cheaper
  • Ost (1997) stated that flooding is an effective and rapid treatment that delivers immediate improvements for phobic patients. This is especially the case when a patient is encouraged to continue self directed exposure to feared objects and situations outside of the therapy situation. The results from flooding can be applied to everyday life outside of the therapy situation
64
Q

Disadvantage of flooding

A
  • A disadvantage of flooding is that it is less effective for curing some types of phobias such as social phobia. This might be because social phobias have more cognitive aspects that flooding cannot address very well, e.g. addressing negative thoughts about speaking in public. Social phobias can be cured more successfully by using cognitive therapies
  • A disadvantage of flooding is that it is a highly traumatic experience and many patients might be unwilling to continue with the therapy until the end. Time and money might be wasted preparing patients for the flooding experience, and then the patient might decide that they do not want to take part or complete the treatment, and their phobia remains uncured. This is a waste of time and money, and maybe other alternatives might be better such as SD
65
Q

Definition of Depression

A

A mood disorder characterised by feelings of despondency and hopelessness
There are two types:
Unipolar (persistent low mood)
Bipolar (too moods shifting to opposing ends, eg very happy to very sad)

66
Q

The diagnosis of depression

A

At least 5 symptoms must be present every day for two weeks

The five symptoms must include sadness or loss of interest and pleasure in normal activities

The person must show impairment in general functioning that has not been caused by other events (for example, death of a loved one)

67
Q

The behavioural characteristics of depression

A

Shift in energy levels
Social impairment
Weight changes
Poor personal hygiene
Sleep pattern disturbances
Aggression and self harm

68
Q

The emotional characteristics of depression

A

Loss of enthusiasm
Constant depressed mood
Worthlessness
Anger

69
Q

The cognitive characteristics of depression

A

Delusions
Reduced concentration
Thoughts of death
Poor memory
Negative thinking
Absolutist thinking

70
Q

The cognitive triad by Beck - AO1

A

Beck believes people become depressed because they have a negative outlook and develop negative schemas which dominate their thinking. These develop in childhood when parents are overly critical and can provide a negative framework in adulthood

71
Q

The cognitive triad - AO1

A

Stage 1: negative thoughts about self

Stage 2: negative thoughts about the world

Stage 3: negative thoughts about the future

72
Q

Strength of the cognitive approach

A
  • The cognitive approach has become very influential over the last 30 years as it is based on sound experimental research that is objective and permits testing
  • There is supporting evidence such as Terry (2000) who assessed 65 pregnant women for cognitive vulnerability. It was found that women with high cognitive vulnerability were more likely to suffer post natal depression, supporting the cognitive approach
73
Q

Weaknesses of the cognitive approach

A
  • It is unclear if negative thoughts are what causes depression to develop; or depression develops first, causing a person to think negatively
  • Becks theory does not explain how some symptoms of depression may develop, such as anger, hallucinations or bizarre beliefs (eg Cotard syndrome is where the patient believes they are a zombie)
74
Q

Ellis ABC model - AO1

A

A: Activating event - patients record events leading to negative thinking, this may be triggered by an event eg getting fired

B: beliefs - Patients record their thoughts associated with the events, for example in a journal

C: consequences - patients record their emotional responses to their beliefs

75
Q

Mustabory thinking- AO1

A

Can cause irrationality and negative thinking, eg ‘I must be liked by everyone’ as the belief is too high, the person will be disappointed, leading to more negative thoughts

76
Q

Strengths of the ABC model

A
  • Bates (1999) found that depressed patients who were given negative thought statements became more and more depressed, supporting the idea that negative thinking helps to cause depression
  • There is supporting evidence that people who develop depression in adulthood tended to experience insecure attachments in childhood. Therefore there seems to be a link between insecure attachments in childhood and negative thinking in adulthood
77
Q

Weaknesses of the ABC model

A
  • It’s not clear if depression causes negative thinking or if negative thinking establishes depression. Cause and effect need to be established
  • This model blames the patient for their depression, it may also mean that situational factors for depression may be overlooked eg family problems
  • Zhang (2005) found that there is a gene related to depression that makes a person ten times more likely to develop the illness. The biological approach may suggest that genes and neurotransmitters are the cause of depression
78
Q

Cognitive behavioural therapy by Beck - AO1

A

Challenge and restructure ways of negative thinking so that they become more positive and rational

CBT can be used on individuals and small groups, and focused on present experiences

Patients are encouraged to identify their negative thoughts, ‘thought catching’

79
Q

Strengths of CBT

A
  • CBT is widely respected and supported by vast amounts of research. In the UK, the NHS offers it as a cost effective treatment for many disorders, especially depression.
  • CBT can be used as a long term cure for depression. Once a patient has undergone CBT, it has lasting outcomes, and there is a high change that the patient is unlikely to suffer a relapse compared to other treatments (eg medications ). Therefore CBT can also be cost effective for the NHS, as they are unlike to need to return
  • CBT can help get to the root cause or underlying issue of the depression for example job loss or divorce. This is more useful then other treatments, such as drugs ads they tend to treat the symptoms of depression, without addressing the cause
80
Q

Weakness of CBT

A

Cujipers (2013) found that CBT can be very effective when combined with drug therapy. The most popular treatment for depression is antidepressant drugs as they require less effort and time than CBT

81
Q

REBT - AO1

A

Rational emotive behavioural therapy was developed by Ellis, it involves challenging negative thoughts by reinterpreting the ABC model in a rare positive and logical way

Homework: Depressed patients are encouraged to complete homework between therapy sessions to test irrational beliefs in the real world, and replacing them with more rational and positive beliefs

Behavioural action: CBT encourages depressed clients to become more active and engage in pleasurable activities that they used to enjoy

82
Q

DEF Model

A

Disputing irrational thoughts and behaviour
Effects of disputing and effective attitude to life
Feelings / emotions

83
Q

Logical disputing

A

Self defeating beliefs do not follow logically from the information available

84
Q

Empirical disputing

A

Sell defeating beliefs ray not be consistent with reality eg ‘everyone hates me’

85
Q

Strengths of REBT

A
  • Flannaghan et al. (1997) supports the use of REBT as an effective way to treat depressive stroke victims. This therefore suggests that REBT is a suitable treatment for specific groups of people with depression and can help them become more positive over time in terms of their thoughts and behaviour
  • There is research evidence to support the use of CBT as a therapy for depression. David (2008) compared 170 depressive patients who had 14 weeks of REBT and compared them to depressive patients who were treated with the drug fluoxetine. The outcomes were compared 6 months after the treatment ended, and it was found that REBT was a better long term treatment for depression compared to the drug therapy
86
Q

Disadvantages of REBT

A
  • It is unclear if the distorted negative thinking is the cause of depression or merely a symptom; if it is only a symptom of depression then REBT is not tackling the root cause of the depression, and the depression might return in the future. This means that the depression has not been cured properly
  • The success of the treatment depends upon the skill and expertise of the therapist. The more skilled the therapist, the better the therapeutic outcomes will be for the depressed client, and this is essential for the treatments effectiveness. Therefore psychologists need to be highly skilled and develop a good rapport with their client in order for REBT to be successful
  • Dependent on the depressed clients being articulate and being able to talk about their thought processes coherently. Therefore REBT would not work for people with severe depression if they were unable to talk or communicate properly, or those who feel uncomfortable talking about their feelings with a psychologist. In this case other treatments would have to be considered such as drug therapy
87
Q

OCD

A

OCD is an anxiety disorder where a person shows compulsions (repetitive behaviour- external) and obsessions ( reoccurring, intrusive thoughts - internal)

88
Q

The behavioural characteristics of OCD

A
  • Compulsive behaviour
  • Hinders everyday functioning
  • Social impairment
  • Repetitive
  • Avoidance
89
Q

The emotional characteristics of OCD

A
  • anxiety and distress
  • Accompanying depression
  • Guilt and disgust
90
Q

The cognitive characteristics of OCD

A
  • Obsessions
  • Recognised as self generated
  • Realisation of inappropriateness
  • Attention bias
91
Q

Genetic causes of OCD

A

OCD has been classified as polygenic; this means that one gene is not responsible for the disorder

  • The COMT gene
  • The SERT gene
92
Q

The COMT gene

A
  • The COMT gene is found more commonly in OCD patients
  • The COMT gene regulates the production of dopamine (High levels of dopamine is associated with OCD)
93
Q

The SERT Gene

A
  • This gene affects the transportation of serotonin - resulting in low levels of serotonin (causing low mood and depressive symptoms)
  • A mutation of the SERT gene may cause this
  • Research conducted by Ozaki (2003) found evidence that 6 out of 7 family members who had OCD had a mutation of the SERT gene
94
Q

Positives of genetic explanations

A
  • Nestadt (2000) supports the genetic explanation for OCD, he found that people who had a first degree relative who already had OCD were five times as likely to get the illness
  • Billett (1998) found from a meta-analysis of 14 twin studies that OCD is twice more likely to be concordant in identical monozygotic twins rather than dizygotic non identical twins
95
Q

Criticism of genetic explanations

A
  • OCD is polygenic, and therefore one single gene is not responsible for causing the disorder. OCD has been genetically linked to other illnesses such as Tourette’s and autism, therefore there may not be one gene responsible.
  • This would argue that OCD can be caused by a combination of genes and a trigger in the environment. Therefore genes alone cannot be the only cause
  • The two process model suggests that OCD can be learnt through classical conditioning and then rewarded through operant conditioning (reinforcement)
96
Q

Beekman and Cath (AO1)

A

A meta analysis was conducted of twin studies and OCD
MZ twins compared against DZ

  • Children: OCD inherited via genes and genetic influence - 45-65%
  • Adults: OCD inherited via genes and genetic influence - 27-47%

Genetically transmitted OCD is more apparent when examining children

97
Q

Dopamine

A
  • Dopamine affects mood
  • OCD sufferers have high levels of dopamine
  • Animal research found high dopamine levels induced movements that resemble compulsive and repetitive behaviours
  • High dopamine is linked to overactivity in the basal ganglia area (motor functioning and learning)
98
Q

Serotonin

A
  • The frontal lobes have been linked to serotonin
  • OCD sufferers tend to have low serotonin levels
  • This may cause depression
  • Serotonin operates the caudate nucleus, low levels cause malfunction
99
Q

Strengths of neural explanations

A
  • Anti depressants increase serotonin levels, leading to a reduction in OCD symptoms
  • Ciccerone (2000) supports neural explanations, found low doses of the drug risperidone helped to lower dopamine levels and alleviate symptoms of OCD
100
Q

Weaknesses of neural explanations

A

High dopamine and low serotonin levels might be the effect of OCD, not the cause

101
Q

Strength of Beekman and Cath

A

Large sample size, so results are generalised

Study includes adults and children

Lots of research support & doesn’t involve an artificial task - increases ecological validity

102
Q

Weaknesses of Beekman and Cath

A
  • The majority of the twin studies did not occur in controlled conditions. The data is not very objective or scientific, which might affect the validity and reliability of the results gained
  • Gene mapping was not taken into account when looking if OCD is genetic. Gene mapping looks closely at the DNA of the twins that do and don’t have OCD
103
Q

Where is dopamine activity in the brain

A

The frontal lobe

104
Q

Jenike and Rauch: AO1

A

Believed that there might be a relationship between OCD being caused by brain damage (that was caused by a virus)

OCD patients with cleaning obsessions were shown images of something dirty and studied using a PET scan. Evidence found that the frontal lobes and basal ganglia were the most active parts of the brain

105
Q

Link between Tourette’s and OCD

A

Patients with Tourette’s also have problems with the basal ganglia and it seems that many patients with Tourette’s also have OCD

106
Q

Weakness of Jenike and Rauch

A

It is not clear if brain damage causes OCD or if OCD causes brain damage

107
Q

SSRI Drugs

A
  • Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors eg Prozac
  • Aim to prolong serotonins activity in the synapse so a person will feel less anxious (higher amount of serotonin available)
  • High levels of serotonin help normalise and reduce a ‘worry circuit’ & helps the orbital frontal correct with normal function
  • Helps stabilise emotions, mood and memory (lowers compulsions)
  • 12-16 week prescription
108
Q

Worry circuit

A
  • Low levels of serotonin -> damage to the caudate nucleus (the brain fails to suppress minor worry signals)
  • A message is the sent to the orbital frontal cortex, and worrying gets worse
109
Q

SNRI

A
  • Increases reuptake of serotonin and noradrenaline
  • Suitable for those who cannot tolerate SSRI drugs
  • Noradrenaline mobilises the brain and body for action
110
Q

Support of SSRIs

A
  • Soomro (2009) reviewed 17 studies that compared SSRIs to placebo drugs, and found that SSRIs were more effective in all studies, especially when combined with CBT
  • SSRI is relatively cheap and cost effective when compared time psychological therapies, such as CBT. Using SSRI drugs is a good value for money for the NHS, and an economical treatment compared to others
111
Q

Weaknesses of SSRIs

A
  • SSRIs may not work for all patients, with them having to use tricyclics instead
  • Side effects: Indigestion, blurred vision and loss of sex drive may cause people to stop taking the drugs
112
Q

Benzodiazepines

A
  • BZ drugs reduce anxiety
  • Examples are Valium and Xanax
  • Increase GABA
  • Reduces serotonin (more likely to become depressed)
113
Q

Benzodiazepines strengths

A
  • Work quickly and effectively to cure OCD symptoms compared to CBT
  • They are a popular treatment and are used globally
114
Q

Benzodiazepines weaknesses

A
  • Unwanted side effects, such as depression, may occur
  • Stewart (2005) criticised BZ drugs as they can cause impairment in speed and processing of verbal learning

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