Approaches: L1-4

Question 1

Definition of psychology

Answer 1

The scientific study of the human mind and its functions; especially affecting behaviour in a given context

Question 2

Definition of science

Answer 2

A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. The aim is to discover laws.

Question 3

Wilhelm Wundt

Answer 3

• Known as the ‘father of psychology’
• Devised ‘Introspection’
• Focus of psychological processes of perception and structuralism
• Structuralism = theory of consciousness
• Wundt wanted psychology to be investigated in the same way as traditional sciences
• Wundt used the scientific method to investigate introspection = ** Highly reliable research; replication is possible**

Question 4

What is introspection

Answer 4

Devised by Wilhelm Wundt as a way of studying internal mental events

** The first systematic and experimental attempt to study the mind/mental processes by breaking down consciousness thought into basic structures of reflections, thoughts, images and sensations**

Question 5

Strengths of introspection

Answer 5

• Extremely scientific with high level of control over variables
• Still currently used in areas of therapy that study emotional states eg cognitive therapy
• Introspection helped develop other approaches in psychology (Eg cognitive approach = Beck)

Question 6

Weaknesses of introspection

Answer 6

• Watson (1913) criticised introspection and whether psychology was emerging as a science = introspection produces subjective data (which is neither objective nor reliable)
• Wilson claim that psychologists have little knowledge about some behaviour and attitudes that might exist outside conscious awareness (eg racism) = unable to uncover & understand these processes
• Introspection fails to explain how the mind works & the processes in led in thinking/processing a certain activity

Question 7

Definition of the behavioural approach

Answer 7

A way of explaining behaviour in term of what is observed in terms of learning

Question 8

Assumptions made by the behavioural approach

Answer 8

• Behaviours are learn the same way for animals and human (classical and operant conditions)
• Focuses on measurable and observable behaviours
• Watson rejected introspection as too vague and difficult

Question 9

Definition of classical conditioning

Answer 9

Learning by association. A neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, until an unconditioned response is produced due to the neutral stimulus

Question 10

Classical conditioning: Pavlov

Answer 10

Before classical conditioning
- Food (UCS) produces the unconditioned response of the dog salivating
- A bell (NS) is rung. The dog doe not salivate (no conditioned response observed)

** During classical conditioning**
- The food (UCS) is repeatedly paired with the bell (NS) to produce salivation (UCR)

After conditioning
- The bel (CS) causes the dog to salivate (CR)
- An association has been established

Question 11

Principles of classical conditioning

Answer 11

• Generalisation: Stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimuli will cause a conditioned response
• Discrimination: Stimuli similar to the origina conditioned stimuli will not produce a conditioned response. This can be done by withholding the unconditioned stimulus
• Extinction: The conditioned response is not produced because of the conditioned stimulus due to it being presented without the unconditioned stimulus

Question 12

Strengths of classical conditioning

Answer 12

• Research support eg Watson and Rayners Little Albert, Pavlov dogs can be used to explain classical conditioning
• The model can be easily tested and observed in a laboratory testing, making it easy to test and measure as well as aiding objectivity and replication
• Classical conditioning can aid treatment of psychological disorders eg through Flooding and systematic desensitisation which are based around the components of classical conditioning & association

Question 13

Weaknesses of classical conditioning

Answer 13

• Can be viewed as deterministic as it ignores the role of free will in peoples behaviours. Classical conditioning anticipates that a persons reaction will have no variations, which is inaccurate
• The biological model can be used as criticism as the behavioural model ignores factors, such as genes, that can be responsible for behaviour. For example, schizophrenia has a genetic component, and cannot be learnt through association
• The behavioural model views animals and humans as passive recipients who have machine like responses to stimulus in the environment. Animals and humans can easily learn new behaviours, or change how they react to certain stimuli

Question 14

Definition of operant conditioning

Answer 14

A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped by consequences. This includes punishment and positive/negative reinforcement

Question 15

Definition of positive reinforcement

Answer 15

Receive a reward when carrying out a behaviour

Question 16

Definition of negative reinforcement

Answer 16

Preform a behaviour to avoid something unpleasant

Question 17

Definition of punishment

Answer 17

Unpleasant consequence caused by certain behaviours

Question 18

Skinner box

Answer 18

• A cage had a loud speaker, light, lever, a door and a floor which could be electrified
• One hungry rat could be placed into this box
• If the rat accidentally pressed the lever it could receive a food pellet (Positive reinforcement)
• The rat would continue to press the lever to receive the food pellet
• The rat could also learn to press the lever to avoid an electric shock (Negative reinforcement)
• Extinction occurs when the rat presses the lever, but does not receive a food pellet
• Spontaneous recovery: Following extinction, if the rat pressed the lever and received a food pellet, it would quickly relearn its associations

Question 19

Schedules of reinforcement

Answer 19

Continuous reinforcement: Every time a behaviour is performed, a reward is received
Fixed interval: The behaviour occurs, and a reward is only received during a fixed period eg every 30 seconds
Fixed ratio: The behaviour must be carried out a fixed number of times before a reward is received

Question 20

Strengths of operant conditioning

Answer 20

• The Skinner box experiment was carried out in highly controlled conditions, so a cause and effect relationship was discovered
• Skinners research is on the nurture side of the debate, this states that learning occurs due to external factors eg the environment. Therefore, manipulating environmental factors has an effect on learning
• Paul and Lentz found a token economy was an effective form of behavioural modification to treat patients with schizophrenia

Question 21

Weaknesses of operant conditioning

Answer 21

• The Skinner box can be criticised as deterministic as it ignores the concept of free will, he suggests that past experiences affect future reactions which humans and animals have no control over
• The Skinner box can be critiqued due to ethical issues, the rats were often in extremely stressful situations which could have negatively affected psychological health. There is also the issue of generalising animal studies to humans, as humans would likely produce different results
• Operant conditioning ignores the role of the biological approach on the behaviour of humans, as operant conditioning cannot be used to explain all behaviours and behaviour may be heavily influenced by factors such as genes

Question 22

Social learning definition

Answer 22

New patterns of behaviour can be acquired by observing the behaviour of others. During learning, people preform behaviours & observe different consequences, such as punishments or reinforcement. Behaviour is learnt from the environment & cognitive processes

Question 23

Key points of social learning theory

Answer 23

Modelling: A person must carry out the behaviour so the observer can learn, this can be live or symbolic. Models provide examples of behaviours which can be learnt via imitation.

Imitation: Tends to be more rapid than classical/operant conditioning, successful features include;
- Characteristics of the model
- Perceived ability to preform the behaviour
- Observed consequences

Identification: The extent the observer relates to the model, so the observer aims to be as like the model as possible

Vicarious reinforcement: Children who observe someone else carrying out a specific behaviour and being rewarded are more likely to imitate the behaviour being shown

Question 24

Social learning — Mediational approaches

Answer 24

Social learning theory places importance on internal cognitive mediational processes. The observer must form a mental representation of the behaviour being modelled. This involves;
- Attention: The observer must pay attention & notice the behaviour of the model
- Retention: The observer must remember the behaviour
- Motor reproduction: The observer must be able to preform the behaviour
- Motivation: The observer must be willing to preform the behaviour

Question 25

Strengths of social learning theory

Answer 25

• It has provided understanding on criminal behaviour. Akers found that criminals engage in more criminal behaviour if they are expoed to a model they identify with
• Fox found that if an observer played a computer game where the model looked similar to themself, then the player would be more likely to engage in the same behaviour as the model
• Social learning theory gives a more comprehensive view of human learning when compared to classical/operant conditioning. Social learning theory recognises the importance of behavioural & cognitive factors when examining how people learn new behaviours

Question 26

Weaknesses of social learning theory

Answer 26

• Does not take into account cause and effect. For example, research shows increased association with peers can increase the likelihood of delinquent behaviour, however other factors eg environment could also be a factor
• Ignores other potential influences on behaviour, such as biology or genetics which could cause people to behave in certain ways. For example, Bandura found that boys were more aggressive, regardless of experimental situation
• It sees behaviour as being determined by the environment (Environmental determinism) rather than being caused by genetics or innate behaviour.

Question 27

Bobo doll experiment

Answer 27

• Children observed an aggressive/non-aggressive fe/male model interact with a Bobo doll
• After children were how’s the aggrieved acts, they were made to bell frustrated by being shown toys they couldn’t play with
• The children were then taken into the room with the Bobo doll and observed for 20 minutes
• The children repeated the behaviour they had seen displayed
• In a follow up, when children saw aggressive behaviour being rewarded they would be more likely to replicate the behaviour
• Boy were shown to be more aggressive than girls, and imitation of aggression was greatest when the observer and model matched gender

Question 28

Strengths of the Bobo doll experiment

Answer 28

• The experiment was conducted in a lab using observations, allowing for a high level of control over EV and ensuring the study is highly reliable and replicable
• The study provides good evidence for social learning theory occurring, and highlights the effect of media on the behaviour of young children as they may be easily influenced

Question 29

Weaknesses of the Bobo doll experiment

Answer 29

• As it was a lab study, the results may be difficult to generalise due to a lack of ecological validity and participants may show demand characteristics and distort the results
• The Bobo doll itself has been criticised as it ‘bounces back’, and critics claim it is meant to be played with in an aggressive manner and therefore reults are not that useful. This can be improved by using a teddy bear or regular doll
• This study also suffers from ethical issues due to the potential psychological harm due to witnessing violence/ carrying it out. Additionally, there may be physical harm caused by those who continue to replicate this behaviour with others