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Repro > Regulation of Reproduction > Flashcards

Regulation of Reproduction Flashcards

1
Q

what is the role of the nervous system in repro regulation?

A

trnslate external stimulus into neural signals that act of reproductive tissues

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2
Q

how does the endocrine system function in repro regulation?

A

relies on hormones

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3
Q

what does the work of the neural system in repro regulation?

A

neurotransmitters

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4
Q

what are neurotransmitters?

A

smaller molecules produced by a neuron and released into a synapse; acts on a target cell

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5
Q

how far do neurotransmitters travel?

A

very short distances; less than 1mm

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6
Q

what type of responses are achieved by neurotransmitters?

A

fast; milliseconds

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7
Q

how long do signals propogated by neurotransmitters last?

A

short duration

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8
Q

what is the release of neurotransmitters stimulated by?

A

other nerves

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9
Q

what are hormones in terms of the response?

A

they are catalysts that SIGNAL a response; they do not make the response

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10
Q

what are hormones, very generally?

A

larger molecules produced by endocrine glands

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11
Q

what does the endocrine system do?

A

acts on cells or tissues at another location in the body

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12
Q

what does the endocrine system (and its hormones) need to function?

A

the circulatory system

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13
Q

how far do hormones travel?

A

a very long way, all around the body

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14
Q

how long does it take for hormones to cause a response/last?

A

minutes to a day

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15
Q

what is the slower transport of the endocrine syste, stimulated by?

A

other nerves and tissues

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16
Q

list the 2 reproductive pathways of the neural system

A
  1. simple neural pathway

2. neuroendocrine reflex

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17
Q

describe the simple neural pathway

A

secretion of neurotransmitter at target tissue

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18
Q

what system does the simple neural pathway involve?

A

the neural system only

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19
Q

describe the neuroendocrine refelx

A

secretion of neurohormone into blood to remote target tissue

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20
Q

what systems are involved in the neuroendocrine reflex and what is their role?

A

neural stimulus, endocrine response

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21
Q

give the fancy definition of neurotransmitter

A

substance released at synapses for neuronal propogation of the electrical impulse, produced by neurons

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22
Q

define a neurohormone?

A

substance released by neurons directly into the blood

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23
Q

list the 5 stimuli that initiate the simple neural reflex

A
  1. thermal
  2. tactile
  3. visual
  4. auditory
  5. olfactory
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24
Q

decribe the signalling of the simple neural reflex

A

signal sent via afferent neuron to spinal cord, which sends a signal back via the Efferent neuron, causing neurotransmitter release into target tissue, resulting in a response

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25
Q

describe the signalling of the neuroendocrine reflex

A

spinal cord sends info to hypothalamus, which causes an endocrine response

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26
Q

compare and contract the signalling of the simple neural and neuroendocrine reflexes

A

simple neural reflex involves only nerves, afferent and efferent, and takes place only in the spinal cord, response is achieved via neurotransmitter. neuroendocrine signalling also takes place in the spinal cord, but that signal leaves the spinal cord and goes to the hypothalamus, causing an endocrine response (view flow chart from notes for more info)

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27
Q

what is the HPG axis?

A

hypothalmic-pituitary-gonadal axis

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28
Q

give some examples of an neuroendocrine response in males and females

A

female: milk ejection
male: emission

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29
Q

what is the HPG responsible for in females?

A

the estrous cycle

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30
Q

what is the HPG responsible for in males?

A

testosterone and sperm production

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31
Q

what is the HPG responsible for in males and females?

A

sexual behavior

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32
Q

list the 3 centers of the hypothalamus that are important in repro regulation

A
  1. surge center (FEMALES ONLY)
  2. tonic center
  3. paraventricular nucleus (PVN)
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33
Q

what is the surge center also known as?

A

pre-ovulatory GnRH center

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34
Q

what is the role of the surge center? (2)

A
  1. specific hypothalamic nuclei in females that responds to high estradiol
  2. secretes high GnRH during short time period
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35
Q

what is the role of the tonic center?

A

controls tonic release of GnRH; daily background levels of GnRH

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36
Q

what is and what is the role of the paraventricular nucleus?

A

it is a discrete band of nerve cells that innverate the posterior pituitary; stimulates release of oxytocin and ADH

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37
Q

what is GnRH?

A

gonadotropin releasing hormone

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38
Q

what is LH?

A

luteinizing hormone

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39
Q

describe the roles of the PVN and the posterior pituitary gland in the production and release of oxytocin and ADH

A

the PVN PRODUCES the hormones, the posterior pituitary RELEASES them

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40
Q

relate the surge center and the tonic center to a faucet in terms of GnRH secretion

A

surge center is like a faucet turned all the way up for a short period of time, resulting in a lot of GnRH produced quickly; the tonic center is like a steady dripping faucet; constantly secreting low levels of GnRH

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41
Q

what does HPPP stand for?

A

the hypothalamo-pituitary portal plexus

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42
Q

what is the hypothalamo-pituitary portal plexus?

A

a vascular network that gives a direct line of communication between the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary glandd

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43
Q

give 2 advantages of the HPPP

A
  1. only need small amounts of hormone to causes an effect

2. hormone does not have to circulate through entire body; decreasing hormone breakdown

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44
Q

describe the connection between the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary gland (3)

A
  1. no portal system
  2. neurons from PVN that terminate in posterior pituitary
  3. direct neurological connection = faster
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45
Q

define a positive feedback loop

A

hormone that stimulates a biological process that further increases levels of that hormone

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46
Q

give an example of a positive feedback loop

A

oxytocin release during parturition

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47
Q

define a negative feedback loop

A

levels of a hormone that bring about a biological response that inhibits further release of that hormone

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48
Q

which type of feedback loop contributes tto homeostasis?

A

negative

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49
Q

give an example of a negative feedback loop in reproduction

A

testosterone production

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50
Q

describe a positive feedback loop in terms of its effect on a gland or tissue

A

positive feedback loop exerts a stimulatory effect on another gland or tissue

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51
Q

describe a negative feedback loop in terms of its effect on a gland or tissue

A

negative feedback loop exerts an inhibitory effect on another gland or tissue

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52
Q

give two examples of reproductive negative feedback loops

A
  1. gonadal steroids: testosterone, progesterone, estradiol

2. protein hormones: inhibin

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53
Q

give two examples of reproductive positive feedback loops

A
  1. gonadal steroids: estradiol (yes, is both +/-)

2. oxytocin during parturition/nursing: milk letdown

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54
Q

how does the endocrine system cause a response?

A

relies on hormones

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55
Q

list and describe the 2 factors that influence the biological activity of a hormone

A
  1. presence of receptors for a hormone on a target cell: is the reason for side effects of hormonal therapy, hormone goes to all cells with receptors, but only certain cells with receptors produce desired response
  2. half-life of the hormone in circulation: want some hormones to have a short half-life
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56
Q

what is a target cell?

A

tissue or cell that possesses receptors for a hormone

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57
Q

define half-life

A

the time required for 1/2 of a hormone to disappear from the blood/body

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58
Q

give a hormone that we would want to have a short half-life and why

A

oxytocin, don’t want super contractions all the time

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59
Q

list the 4 characteristics of reproductive hormones

A
  1. exert biological response at the nanogram or picogram level in blood
  2. short half-lives
  3. exert cell response by binding to specific receptors in or on cell
  4. stimulate phenotypic response in cell through biochemical, metabolic, or genomic response
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60
Q

list the 3 ways to classify a hormone

A
  1. source
  2. biochemical classification
  3. mode of action
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61
Q

describe source as a way to classify a hormone

A

where does it come from

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62
Q

list and describe the 4 biochemical classifications of a hormone

A
  1. peptide: small chain of amino acids
  2. protein/glycoprotein: larger than peptides
  3. steroid/lipids: fat soluble, diffuse through membranes
  4. fatty acids
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63
Q

which biochemical classes of hormones can’t be given orally and why?

A

peptides and proteins/glycoproteins; would just be digested in stomach acid, must be injected instead

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64
Q

what does the glyco in glycoprotein mean?

A

there is a carbohydrate attached to the protein

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65
Q

what shape is the structure of a steroid? how are they usually administered?

A

a ring, can be given orally or in a CIDR

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66
Q

what shape is the structure of a lipid? how are they usually administered?

A

chain, usually injected

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67
Q

what does the pineal gland produce? what animals does it play an important reproductive role in?

A

melatonin; seasonal breeders

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68
Q

describe mode of action as a way to classify a hormone

A

what/how many target tissues? what does it communicate in that target tissue?

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69
Q

list two peptide hormones and what type of peptides they are, and what their class of hormone is

A
  1. oxytocin: nanopeptide (9 amino acid chain)
  2. GnRH: decapeptide (10 amino acid chain)
    these are neurohormones
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70
Q

list three glycoproteins hormones and their class of hormones of the first two

A
  1. FSH
  2. LH
  3. TSH
    FSH and LH are gonadotropins
71
Q

what is an alpha subunit?

A

common among many hormones, the same in many hormones

72
Q

what is a beta subunit?

A

unique to each hormone; allows specificity

73
Q

what are all sex steroids derived from?

A

cholesterol

74
Q

how do you get different sex steroids from cholesterol?

A

chop off carbons

75
Q

how many carbons does cholesterol have?

A

27

76
Q

list 3 sex hormones derived from cholesterol and their carbon count

A
  1. progesterone: 21 carbons
  2. androgens: 19 carbons
  3. estrogen: 18 carbons
77
Q

what are the 2 androgens derived from cholesterol?

A

testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT)

78
Q

what enzyme converts testosterone to dihydrotestosterone?

A

5a (alpha) reductase

79
Q

what form of estrogen is the predominant form for cyclicity?

A

estradiol, E2

80
Q

what form of estrogen is responsible for postmenopause?

A

estrone, E1

81
Q

what form of estrogen is responsible for pregnancy?

A

estriol, E3

82
Q

what does the 1, 2, or 3 of estrogen indicate?

A

the number of hydroxyl groups

83
Q

what enzyme converts androgens to estrogens?

A

aromatase

84
Q

list the 6 steroid functions

A
  1. cellular effects
  2. feedback
  3. behavior
  4. secondary sex characteristics
  5. bone ossification
  6. pregnancy
85
Q

describe steroids in terms of how they get to and into target cell

A

fat soluble, diffuse through membranes

86
Q

what is the rate limiting step in cholesterol conversion and where does it take place?

A

conversion of cholesterol to pragnenolone, happens in mitochondria

87
Q

where does the conversion of pragnenolone to progesterone take place?

A

in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum

88
Q

when testosterone is combined with 5a reductase, what is the product?

A

dihydrotestosterone

89
Q

when testosterone is combined with aromatase, what is the product?

A

estradiol

90
Q

describe the structure of protaglandins

A

fatty acids

91
Q

list the 4 functions of prostaglandins

A
  1. luteolysis: CL breakdown
  2. ovulation: locally
  3. inflammation
  4. blood pressure
92
Q

what is important about Cox-2 inhibitors?

A

they can inhibit ovulation by stopping conversion of cyclooxygenase to PGH2, which will eventually convert to PGF2a and PGE2

93
Q

list the 3 domains of a transmembrane hormone receptor

A
  1. extracellular domain
  2. transmembrane domain
  3. intracellular domain
94
Q

where does a hormone bind in a hormone receptor?

A

in the extracellular domain

95
Q

what is phosphorylation?

A

the addition of a phosphate (PO4) group to a protein or a small molecule

96
Q

what do phosphatases do?

A

remove a phosphate group from a protein

97
Q

what does dephosphorylate mean?

A

to remove a phosphate group from a protein

98
Q

what can the phosphorylation or activation of a protein do?

A

can lead to genomic and metabolic changes in cells and synthesis of new products

99
Q

what can a protein be compared to in terms of activation?

A

like a firefighter, ready to go, just needs the addition of PO4 group

100
Q

list the 2 types of second messenger signalling pathways

A
  1. cAMP second messenger

2. Ca2+ second messenger

101
Q

list 5 hormones that use the cAMP second messenger signalling pathway

A
  1. LH
  2. FSH
  3. prolactin
  4. eCG
  5. hCG
102
Q

describe the reasoning behind steroid hormone receptors

A

steroids are fat soluble so the passively diffuse through the cell membrane into the cytoplasm of the cell, however, they are not water soluble so they are transported in blood bound to water soluble proteins

103
Q

is the steroid hormone binding process quicker or slower than the second messenger signalling pathway? why?

A

slower, have to change DNA

104
Q

list the 4 steps in the steroid binding process

A
  1. steroid transported in circulation bound to a carrier protein
  2. steroid diffuses through membrane
  3. steroid binds to a receptor (in nucleus or cytoplasm), and the HORMONE-RECEPTOR COMPLEX binds to DNA, causing step 4
  4. gene transcription for new products
105
Q

list the 4 steroid hormones that use the steroid binding process

A
  1. testosterone
  2. DHT
  3. E2 (also uses 2nd messenger systems)
  4. P4
106
Q

list the 3 types of hormone potency/action based on pattern and duration of hormone release

A
  1. basal
  2. episodic
  3. sustained
107
Q

describe basal hormonal release, give an example

A

hormone generally stays low but with fluctuations, responsible for background levels
ex. GnRH release from tonic center

108
Q

describe episodic hormonal release, give an example

A

in response to positive feedback or stimulation

ex. GnRH release from surge center

109
Q

describe sustained hormonal release

give an example

A

remains elevated for a relatively long period of time (days to weeks)
ex. progesterone from CL during diestrus

110
Q

list the 2 repro peptide hormones

A
  1. oxytocin

2. GnRH

111
Q

list the 3 sources of oxytocin

A
  1. produced by neurons in the hypothalamus (PVN)
  2. released by posterior pituitary
  3. corpul luteum
112
Q

list the 3 female targets of oxytocin and their functions

A
  1. uterus: myometrium contractions for parturition
  2. mammary glands: milk letdown
  3. endometrium: to signal for PGF2a
113
Q

list the male target of oxytocin and its function

A

epididymal tail, ductus deferens: pre-ejaculatory movemement of sperm (emission)

114
Q

what is the source of GnRH? (give 2 specific sites in this source)

A

hypothalamus only

  • tonic and surge center in females
  • tonic center only in males
115
Q

list the male and female target of GnRH and its function

A

anterior pituitary: causes release of FSH or LH

116
Q

list one repro protein hormone and its source

A

prolactin, from the anterior pituitary

117
Q

list the 2ish female targets of prolactin and the 4 overall functions

A
  1. mammary gland: growth during pregnancy (1), milk production after parturition (2)
  2. in some species: ovulation and corpus luteum formation (also 3rd function)
    4th function: maternal bonding
118
Q

list the male target of prolactin and its 3 functions

A
  1. testis: for testosterone production, spermatogenesis, and paternal bonding
119
Q

describe the difference between oxytocin and prolactin

A

oxytocin signals for milk letdown during nursing, prolactin signals to the mammary gland to produce milk

120
Q

give the one repro polypeptide hormone and its source(s)

A

relaxin, from the placenta and/or corpus luteum

121
Q

list the female target of relaxin and its function

A

targets the cervix/pelvic ligaments to widen the birth canal for parturition

122
Q

does relaxin only target cervical/pelvic ligaments? what is the importance of this?

A

no; it targets all ligaments and is the reason why pregnant mothers experience loose joints and whatnot

123
Q

give the male function of relaxin and its source in males

A

enhances sperm motility, we are unsure of its source

124
Q

list the 6 glycoprotein repro hormones

A
  1. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
  2. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
  3. Equine Chroionic Gonadotropin (eCG)
  4. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)
  5. Inhibin
  6. Activin
125
Q

from where and when is FSH released?

A

from the anterior pituitary gland in response to GnRH

126
Q

give the female target and functions (2) of FSH

A

granulosa cells: induce follicular development and estradiol synthesis

127
Q

give the male target and functions (3) of FSH

A

sertoli cells: support sertoli cells, support spermatogenesis, and regulate blood-testis barrier through tight junctions between sertoli cells

128
Q

from where and when is LH released?

A

from anterior pituitary in response to GnRH SURGE (can also have tonic secretion in male and female, but tonic only in males bc that’s all they have)

129
Q

give the three female targets and functions of LH

A
  1. theca cells: testosterone secretion
  2. granulose cells: induces ovulation
  3. luteal cells: support of forming corpus luteum
130
Q

what induces the ovulation accomplished by granulose cells?

A

surge levels from theca cells

131
Q

give the male target and function of LH

A

leydig cells: testosterone production

132
Q

what did Equine chorionic gonadotropin (eCG) used to be called?

A

PMSG: pregnant mare serum gonadotropin

133
Q

describe the subunits of eCG?

A

same alpha subunit as LH, FSH, with a unique beta subunit that can also bind to LH receptors

134
Q

where is eCG found naturally? what is its use?

A

only found naturally in horses; but can be administered to other species for FSH activity

135
Q

where in equines is eCG found?

A

endometrial cups, a structure unique to horses composed of the placenta and endometrium

136
Q

at one point during gestation are endometrial cups found in equines?

A

d 35- d110-140 of gestation

137
Q

is there a male target of eCG?

A

no, female only

138
Q

give the target of eCG and its 4 functions

A

the ovary: induces accessory CL formation, which increases P4, has LH like activity in mares, has FSH like activity in other species

139
Q

what is the source of hCG?

A

the embryo and placenta

140
Q

what hormone is measured by pregnancy tests?

A

hCG

141
Q

is there a male target of hCG?

A

no

142
Q

what is the female target of hCG and its 3 functions

A

corpus luteum: prevents luteolysis, can be used to induce ovulation in mares, has LH like activity in mares

143
Q

give the female source of inhibin

A

granulose cells

144
Q

give the male source of inhibin

A

sertoli cells

145
Q

give the male and female target of inhibin and its function

A

anterior pituitary gland, inhibits FSH secretion

146
Q

what type of feedback does inhibin play a role in?

A

negative feedback systems

147
Q

give the 3 sources of activin

A
  1. anterior pituitary
  2. gonads
  3. placenta
148
Q

give the female target and 2 functions of activin

A

follicle: increases FSH binding and estradiol production

149
Q

give the male target and 2 functions of activin

A

testis to enhance spermatogenesis and testosterone production

150
Q

list the 3 sex steroid hormones

A
  1. estrogen
  2. progesterone
  3. testosterone
151
Q

give the female sources (2) of E2

A
  1. granulosa cells

2. placenta

152
Q

give the male source of E2

A

sertoli cells

153
Q

give the 4 reproductive female targets of E2 and their respective functions

A
  1. brain: sexual behavior
  2. hypothalamus: GnRH regulation
  3. entire repro tract: increase secretions
  4. myometrium: contractions for sperm movement
154
Q

does E2 have only reproductive targets?

A

no, goes to whole body

155
Q

give the male target of E2 and its function

A

brain: sexual behavior

156
Q

give the 2 sources of progesterone

A
  1. corpus luteum (always produces P4)

2. placenta (sometimes produces P4)

157
Q

give the 4 targets of progesterone and their respective functions

A
  1. uterus: uterine secretions
  2. mammary gland: increases mammary tissue
  3. hypothalamus: inhibit GnRH secretion
  4. brain: inhibit reproductive behavior
158
Q

does progesterone have a male source?

A

no

159
Q

give the female source of testosterone

A

theca interna cells

160
Q

give the male source of testosterone

A

leydig cells

161
Q

give the female target of testosterone and its function

A

granulosa cells: substrate for estradiol

162
Q

give the 3 male targets of testosterone and their respective functions

A
  1. accessory sex glands: secretions
  2. seminiferous tubules: promote spermatogenesis
  3. epididymis: several functions
163
Q

list the fatty acid repro hormone

A

Prostalgandin F2a (PGF2a)

164
Q

give the female source of PGF2a

A

uterine endometrium mostly, can have other sources

165
Q

give the male source of PGF2a

A

vesicular gland, or prostate if no vesicular gland

166
Q

give the female targets of PGF2a (3) and their respective functions

A
  1. corpus luteum: luteolysis
  2. myometrium: uterine tone/contraction
  3. follicles: ovulation, localized
167
Q

give the male target of PGF2a and its function

A

epidiymis: induce daily contractions, part of sperm maturation process

168
Q

list the 7 steps in the female feedback loop

A
  1. tonic GnRH release from hypothalamus to anterior pituitary: tonic release of FSH and LH stimulates next step
  2. stimulated follicular development to produce E2 and inhibin (at lower levels)
  3. low E2 and inhibin negative feedback to hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to reduce FSH
  4. follicle keeps growing and producing higher E2 levels until E2 levels are high enough to stimulate hypothlamus for GnRH surge
  5. LH and FSH surge, in response to GnRH surge, causes next step
  6. ovulation of largest follicle
  7. follicle is luteinized and produces high P4, which has strong negative feedback on hypothalamus, which dampens system
169
Q

list the 5 steps of the cAMP second messenger signalling pathway

A
  1. primary messenger binds to cell receptor and activates a G protein
  2. the activated G protein then activates adenylate cyclase, which converts ATP to cAMP (a process that requires energy)
  3. cAMP activates protein kinase A (PKA)
  4. PKA phosphorylates a protein
  5. cell response (communicate with DNA)
170
Q

list the 7 steps of the Ca2+ second messenger pathway

A
  1. primary messenger binds to cell receptor and activates a G protein
  2. the activated G protein bnds to the alpha subunit and activates PLC, which associates with PIP2
  3. PLC cleaves PIP2 into IP3 and DAG; DAG directly activates protein kinase C, which phosporylates a protein and causes a response inside the cell
  4. IP3 is released into the cytoplasm and binds to a channel on the ER (which has high Ca2+ concentrations inside)
  5. the ER channel opens, Ca2+ (our secondary messenger) leaves and enters the cytoplasm
  6. in cytoplasm, Ca2+ activates existing secretory granules (GnRH response)
  7. Ca2+ activates PKC, which phosphorylates a protein and causes a response inside the cell
171
Q

over what period of time does the female feedback loop occur?

A

17-21 days, depending on the cycle length of the animal

172
Q

over what period of time does the male feedback loop occur?

A

ongoing loop, repeats every few hours

173
Q

list the 4 steps in the male feedback loop, including 3A and 4A, and 3B and 4B

A
  1. tonic GnRH release from hypothalamus
  2. release of FSH and LH from anterior pituitary
    3A. FSH targets sertoli cells to (1) promote spermatogenesis, (2) produce inhibin, and (3) produce ABP
    4A. inhibin has a negative feedback effect on the anterior pituitary
    3B. LH targets Leydig cells to produce testosterone, which can diffuse into sertoli cells and bind to ABP, or is converted to estradiol, which also has a negative feedback effect on the anterior pituitary and hypothalamus
    4B. testosterone can go into circulation and cause a negative feedback effect on the anterior pituitary and hypothalamus
174
Q

what is ABP?

A

androgen-binding protein

Repro (18 decks)

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