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ANS 327: Reproductive Physiology > Regulation of Reproduction > Flashcards

Regulation of Reproduction Flashcards

1
Q

What is the nervous system?

A

A system that translates external stimulus into neural signals that act on reproductive tissue.

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2
Q

What is the endocrine system?

A

A system that relies on hormones and systemic circulation.

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3
Q

What is the exception to the hormone circulation rule?

A

GnRH.

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4
Q

What does external mean in relation to the nervous system?

A

Anything not directly in the nervous system.

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5
Q

What are the characteristics of neural signaling?

A
  1. Neurotransmitters are used.
  2. Neurotransmitters are smaller relative to hormones.
  3. Secreted into a synapse (between two neurons or between a neuron and a target tissue.
  4. Short distance.
  5. Fast transport (milliseconds).
  6. Stimulated by neural signals.
  7. Short duration.
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6
Q

What are the characteristics of endocrine signaling?

A
  1. Hormones are used.
  2. Relatively large compared to neurotransmitters.
  3. From endocrine glands.
  4. Act as catalysts in tissues.
  5. Slower transport (minutes).
  6. Slower response time (minutes).
  7. Longer duration of response (Minutes to days).
  8. Long distance.
  9. Triggered by a neural or hormone signal.
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7
Q

What is a simple neural pathway (SNP)?

A

Secretion of neurotransmitters at target tissues. Purely neural signal and response.

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8
Q

What is a neuroendocrine reflex (NER)?

A

Secretion of neurohormones to remote target tissues via the blood. Neural signal and endocrine response.

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9
Q

What is a neurotransmitter?

A

A substance that is released at synapses for neuronal propagation of the electrical impulses produced by the neurons.
ex: Acetylcholine.

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10
Q

What are neurohormones?

A

A substance released by neurons directly into the blood. ex: OT, GnRH.

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11
Q

What are the steps of the SNP?

A
  1. The signal is sent to the spinal cord via afferent/sensory neurons.
  2. The spinal cord sends a response via efferent/motor neurons.
  3. Neurotransmitters are released into a synapse with a target tissue.
  4. Response by the target tissue (ex: Muscular contraction, scrotal sweat glands sweating, Tunica dartos contraction, etc.).
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12
Q

What are the steps of the NER?

A
  1. The signal is sent to the spinal cord via afferent/sensory neurons.
  2. The spinal cord sends a signal to the hypothalamus.
  3. The hypothalamus determines the response (What neurohormone to release into circulation).
    *Short response time, sustained effect(s).
    ex: Emission, milk ejection, parturition, OT-related functions.
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13
Q

What is the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis (HPG)?

A

The relationship between the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and the gonads.

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14
Q

What does the HPG regulate in females?

A
  1. The estrous cycle.
  2. Sexual behavior.
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15
Q

What does the HPG regulate in males?

A
  1. Sperm production.
  2. Testosterone (T).
  3. Sexual behavior.
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16
Q

What are the three parts of the hypothalamus?

A
  1. Surge center.
  2. Tonic center.
  3. Paraventricular nucleus (PVN).
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17
Q

What is the function of the surge center?

A

Responds to high levels of E2 by secreting high levels of GnRH in a short period of time at the start of each estrous cycle. Think about turning the faucet all the way on.
*Only present in females.
** Turned off by birth control.

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18
Q

What is the function of the tonic center?

A

Controls the periodic, normal release of GnRH every 2 hours.

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19
Q

What is the function of the paraventricular nucleus?

A

A discrete band of nerves that innervates the posterior pituitary gland. Produces OT and ADH. The axons of the PVN end in the posterior pituitary gland.

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20
Q

What is the hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal plexus (HPPP)?

A

The vasculature associated with the anterior pituitary gland where GnRH is released into.

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21
Q

Why is GnRH released into the HPPP?

A
  1. It prevents the GnRH from degrading in the systemic circulation.
  2. Allows effects to occur with small amounts of GNRH.
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22
Q

What does the posterior pituitary gland store and release?

A

OT.

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23
Q

What is a positive feedback loop?

A

When a hormone or stimulus exerts a STIMULATORY effect on another gland or tissue.
ex: OT secretion at parturition.

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24
Q

What is a negative feedback loop?

A

When a hormone or stimulus exerts an INHIBITORY effect on another gland or tissue. Usually used to restore homeostasis.
ex: Temperature control of the testes.

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25
Q

What types of hormones are present in negative feedback loops?

A
  1. The gonadal steroids T, P4, and E2.
  2. The protein hormone inhibin.
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26
Q

What types of hormones are present in positive feedback loops?

A
  1. The gonadal steroid E2.
  2. OT (parturition only).
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27
Q

What is the biological activity of a hormone?

A

The hormone’s functions.

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28
Q

True or False: The target cells and the secreting cell are paired.

A

False.

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29
Q

What are the factors that influence the biological activity of hormones?

A
  1. Half-life of the hormone in circulation.
  2. Presence of receptors for a hormone on a cell.
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30
Q

What is half-life?

A

The time for 1/2 of hormones to disappear from the body/blood.

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31
Q

What are the levels of reproductive hormones in the body?

A

Nanograms (10^-9) to picograms (10^-12).

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32
Q

What is the half-life of a reproductive hormone characterized as?

A

Short.

33
Q

What kind of response do reproductive hormones stimulate in cells?

A

Phenotypic responses through biochemical, genomic, or metabolic responses.

34
Q

What are the three steps of hormone classification?

A
  1. Source?
  2. Biochemical classification?
  3. Mode of action (Target tissue and what does it communicate)?
35
Q

What are the three types of biochemical classification? Please provide characteristics of each.

A
  1. Steroids and lipids: Fat soluble and diffuse through membranes.
  2. Peptide: Small chain of amino acids.
  3. Protein and glycoprotein: Larger than a peptide.
36
Q

Which hormone classification is the only one that can be given orally?

A

Lipid.

37
Q

What is the structure of a glycoprotein?
Please provide examples.

A

A universal alpha subunit and a unique beta subunit.
ex: FSH and LH.

38
Q

What is recognized by the recptors concerning glycoproteins?

A

The beta subunit.

39
Q

What are steroids derived from?

A

Cholesterol (27 carbons).

40
Q

What is cholesterol turned into using enzymes? Where does it occur?

A
  1. Pregnenolone.
  2. Mitochondria.
    *Rate Limiting Step (RLS).
41
Q

What is pregnenolone turned into using enzymes? Where does it occur?

A
  1. P4.
  2. Smooth ER.
42
Q

What is P4 turned into using enzymes? Where does it occur?

A
  1. T.
  2. Smooth ER.
43
Q

What converts T into DHT? Where does it occur?

A
  1. 5alpha reductase.
  2. Smooth ER.
44
Q

What converts T into estradiols? Where does it occur?

A
  1. Aromatase.
  2. Smooth ER.
45
Q

What is E2 used for?

A

The estrous cycle.

46
Q

What are E1 and E3 used for?

A

After pregnancy and menopause.

47
Q

What are the functions of prostaglandins?

A
  1. Sperm transport in the epididymis.
  2. Parturition.
  3. Ovulation (PGE2).
  4. Luteolysis.
  5. Inflammation (Non-repro.).
  6. Blood pressure (Non-repro.).
48
Q

What are the two types of drugs that inhibit prostaglandins?

A
  1. NSAID (ex: Ibuprophen).
  2. Steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (ex: Prednisone).
    *Cyclooxygenase inhibitors.
49
Q

What are the three parts of the hormone receptor structure?

A
  1. Extracellular.
  2. Transmembrane.
  3. Intracellular.
50
Q

What is the function of the extracellular section?

A

Located on the surface of the cell membrane. Where antigens and hormones bind.

51
Q

What is the function of the transmembrane section?

A

To communicate the message transmitted by the antigen or hormone to the inner part of the cell.

52
Q

What is the function of the intracellular section?

A

Responsible for causing the cascade that facilitates changes inside the cell.

53
Q

What is phosphorylation?

A

The addition of a phosphate (PO_4) group to a protein or small molecule.
* Leads to genomic and metabolic changes in cells and the synthesis of new products.

54
Q

What does the enzyme phosphatase do?

A

Removes the phosphate group (Dephosphorylate) from proteins and small molecules.

55
Q

What is the first step of the cAMP second messenger system?

A

Binding of the first messenger to the receptor, activating the G-protein.

56
Q

What is the second step of the cAMP second messenger system?

A

The G-protein activates adenylate cyclase to produce cAMP.

57
Q

What is the third step of the cAMP second messenger system?

A

cAMP activates PKA.

58
Q

What is the fourth step of the cAMP second messenger system?

A

PKA phosphorylates a molecule. This induces a change in cell activity.

59
Q

What hormones can start a cAMP second messenger cascade?

A
  1. LH.
  2. Prolactin.
  3. FSH.
  4. hCG.
  5. eCG.
60
Q

What is a kinase?

A

An enzyme that phosphorylates protein.

61
Q

What is the first step of the Ca^2+ second messenger system?

A

The first messenger binds to the receptor.

62
Q

What is the second step of the Ca^2+ second messenger system?

A

The G-protein contacts the phospholipase C (PLC) and PIP_2.

63
Q

What is the third step of the Ca^2+ second messenger system?

A

IP_3 breaks off and diffuses into the cytoplasm and DAG stays in the membrane.

64
Q

What is the fourth step of the Ca^2+ second messenger system?

A

IP_3 binds to a Ca^2+ channel on the ER, causing Ca^2+ release and the activation of PKC by Ca^2+.

65
Q

What is the fifth step of the Ca^2+ second messenger system?

A

A Ca^2+ channel in the plasma membrane opens, allowing more Ca^2+ to enter the cell leading to high intercellular calcium.

66
Q

What is the sixth step of the Ca^2+ second messenger system?

A

Secretory granules will diffuse into the plasma membrane and fuse to it. Once fused, the granules release their content.

67
Q

How do steroids enter the cell?

A

They are fat soluble and diffuse passively through the cell membrane.

68
Q

How are steroids transported through the blood?

A

Using hydrophilic carrier proteins.

69
Q

What is step one of the steroid hormone receptor second messenger system?

A

Steroids are transported through the blood bound to carrier proteins.

70
Q

What is step two of the steroid hormone receptor second messenger system?

A

The steroid detaches from the carrier protein and diffuses through the cell membrane.

71
Q

What is step three of the steroid hormone receptor second messenger system?

A

Binds to a receptor in the cytoplasm or nucleus. Hormone + receptor binds to the DNA (at a promotor sequence) and initiates gene transcription.

72
Q

What is step four of the steroid hormone receptor second messenger system?

A

Gene transcription produces new products.

73
Q

What hormone has all three types of second messenger systems?

A

E2.

74
Q

What is episodic hormone release?

A

When hormones are released in response to stimulation. This happens due to the NER and lasts for minutes to hours.
ex: GnRH from the surge center or OT release.

75
Q

What is basal hormone release?

A

Background hormone release. Low concentrations.
ex: GnRH release from the tonic centers.

76
Q

What is sustained hormone release?

A

The hormone level increases and stays high. Lasts for days to weeks.
ex: P4 and steroids.

77
Q

What are the steps of the female feedback loop?

A
  1. Tonic GnRH release from the hypothalamus.
  2. Tonic FSH and LH release from the A.P.. Growth and recruitment of follicles.
  3. As follicles grow, E2 and inhibin increase, while FSH decreases.
  4. Follicles make high E2 levels, which stimulate the surge centers.
  5. Surge of FSH, GnRH, and LH.
  6. The LH surge causes ovulation.
  7. Lutenization of CL formation.
  8. CL produces P4, which inhibits the surge center.
78
Q

What are the steps of the male feedback loop?

A
  1. Tonic GnRH release from the hypothalamus.
  2. Tonic release of FSH and LH.
    3a. FSH signals the Sertoli cells to promote spermatogenesis, produce inhibin to lower FSH, and produce androgen binding protein (ABP).
    3b. LH signals the Leydig cells to produce T. T goes to the hypothalamus for a negative feedback loop, some is bound to ABP to be kept in the semineferous tubules.
79
Q

What does E2 feedback on?

A

The A.P. and the hypothalamus.

ANS 327: Reproductive Physiology (23 decks)

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