Radioactive waste and spent fuel

Question 1

The Radioactive Waste and Spent Fuel Directive had not been correctly transposed by x Member States x years after the transposition deadline of yyyy

Answer 1

The Radioactive Waste and Spent Fuel Directive had not been correctly transposed by 13 Member States 6 years after the transposition deadline of 2013

Question 2

Radioactive waste is mainly generated from the production of electricity in nuclear power plants, or from the non-power-related use of radioactive materials for …, …, … and … purposes.

Answer 2

Radioactive waste is mainly generated from the production of electricity in nuclear power plants, or from the non-power-related use of radioactive materials for medical, research, industrial and agricultural purposes.

Question 3

x EU countries generate radioactive waste, and x of them also manage spent fuel on their territory. Owing to its radiological properties and the potential hazard it poses, it is important to ensure the safe management of radioactive waste and spent fuel at all stages. It requires containment and isolation from humans and the living environment over a long period of time.

Answer 3

All EU countries generate radioactive waste, and 20 of them also manage spent fuel on their territory. Owing to its radiological properties and the potential hazard it poses, it is important to ensure the safe management of radioactive waste and spent fuel at all stages. It requires containment and isolation from humans and the living environment over a long period of time.

Question 4

Radioactive waste is any radioactive material in gaseous, liquid or solid form that is … in the country of origin, or in the destination country. The material has to be controlled as radioactive waste by a regulatory body under the legislative and regulatory framework of the countries of …. A natural or legal person can decide if a material is radioactive waste, but the decision needs to be accepted by the ….

Answer 4

Radioactive waste is any radioactive material in gaseous, liquid or solid form that is not going to be used any longer in the country of origin, or in the destination country. The material has to be controlled as radioactive waste by a regulatory body under the legislative and regulatory framework of the countries of origin and destination. A natural or legal person can decide if a material is radioactive waste, but the decision needs to be accepted by the countries.

Question 5

Progress has been made in safely disposing of very-low-level and low-level waste in the EU, and so far …, … and … have selected sites for the deep geological disposal of … and … waste from civilian facilities.

They plan to open the first repositories for these kinds of waste between … and ….

Answer 5

Progress has been made in safely disposing of very-low-level and low-level waste in the EU, and so far Finland, France and Sweden have selected sites for the deep geological disposal of intermediate-level and high-level waste from civilian facilities.

They plan to open the first repositories for these kinds of waste between 2025 and 2035.

Question 6

The shipment of radioactive waste and spent fuel, through import, export and …, are common practices that occur regularly in the EU.

The EU’s Directive on Shipments of Radioactive Waste and Spent Fuel (2006/117/Euratom) establishes a system of … for such shipments in Europe.

Answer 6

The shipment of radioactive waste and spent fuel, through import, export and transit, are common practices that occur regularly in the EU.

The EU’s Directive on Shipments of Radioactive Waste and Spent Fuel (2006/117/Euratom) establishes a system of prior authorisation for such shipments in Europe.

Question 7

The EU’s Directive on Shipments of Radioactive Waste and Spent Fuel:
* requires … to notify … about shipments of radioactive materials which depart from, go through, or end up in the EU
* allows … to ship spent fuel to each other for reprocessing and organise the … of the resulting radioactive materials
* allows … to send shipments of radioactive materials that do not comply with the directive back to …
* prohibits the export of radioactive waste to …, … or … countries, to …, or to any country which does not have the resources to safely manage it

Answer 7

The EU’s Directive on Shipments of Radioactive Waste and Spent Fuel:
* requires operators to notify national authorities about shipments of radioactive materials which depart from, go through, or end up in the EU
* allows EU countries to ship spent fuel to each other for reprocessing and organise the return of the resulting radioactive materials
* allows EU countries to send shipments of radioactive materials that do not comply with the directive back to their country of origin
* prohibits the export of radioactive waste to African, Caribbean or Pacific countries, to Antarctica, or to any country which does not have the resources to safely manage it

Question 8

The EU’s Radioactive Waste and Spent Fuel Management Directive (yyyy/70/Euratom) requires that all EU countries have a … for spent fuel and radioactive waste management and that they draw up and implement … for the management of these materials. The programmes should cover all types of spent fuel and radioactive waste under EU countries’ jurisdiction and all stages of spent fuel and radioactive waste management from generation to disposal.

Answer 8

The EU’s Radioactive Waste and Spent Fuel Management Directive (2011/70/Euratom) requires that all EU countries have a national policy for spent fuel and radioactive waste management and that they draw up and implement national programmes for the management of these materials. The programmes should cover all types of spent fuel and radioactive waste under EU countries’ jurisdiction and all stages of spent fuel and radioactive waste management from generation to disposal.

Question 9

Every x years since August …, EU countries submit national … on the implementation of the directive to the Commission. Based on those, the Commission drafts a report on the overall implementation of the directive and an inventory of radioactive waste and spent fuel present in the Community’s territory and the future prospects.

Answer 9

Every 3 years since August 2015, EU countries submit national reports on the implementation of the directive to the Commission. Based on those, the Commission drafts a report on the overall implementation of the directive and an inventory of radioactive waste and spent fuel present in the Community’s territory and the future prospects.

Question 10

Around … tonnes of high-level waste, mostly spent fuel, are in temporary storage around the world, according to the World Nuclear Association, an industry organisation. At the moment, the spent fuel rods are usually placed in carefully constructed …, which are lowered into pools of water.

Answer 10

Around 270 000 tonnes of high-level waste, mostly spent fuel, are in temporary storage around the world, according to the World Nuclear Association, an industry organisation. At the moment, the spent fuel rods are usually placed in carefully constructed vats, which are lowered into pools of water.

Question 11

The Euratom Conferences … 2022 – … ’22 organised by the French Presidency of the Council of the EU and the European Commission will take place on Monday 30 May – Friday 3 June 2022 in Lyon, France.

This will be the 10th edition of the Euratom research and training conferences on fission safety of reactor systems (… 2022) and radioactive waste management (… ’22) supported by the European Commission together with the Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), under the auspices of the French Presidency of the Council of the EU.

The main objective of these high-level policy conferences is to present progress and key achievements of the Euratom … carried out since 2019 and to stimulate discussions on the state of play of …, key national, European and international challenges and opportunities, as well as exploring future perspectives.

Answer 11

The Euratom Conferences FISA 2022 – EURADWASTE ’22 organised by the French Presidency of the Council of the EU and the European Commission will take place on Monday 30 May – Friday 3 June 2022 in Lyon, France.

This will be the 10th edition of the Euratom research and training conferences on fission safety of reactor systems (FISA 2022) and radioactive waste management (EURADWASTE ’22) supported by the European Commission together with the Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), under the auspices of the French Presidency of the Council of the EU.

The main objective of these high-level policy conferences is to present progress and key achievements of the Euratom research and training projects carried out since 2019 and to stimulate discussions on the state of play of Research and Innovations, key national, European and international challenges and opportunities, as well as exploring future perspectives.

Question 12

They discussed technology being developed to construct permanent underground disposal sites known as deep geological repositories, such as a planned facility x km underground in … with x km of tunnels. These repositories will aim to keep the waste out of reach of human beings and the wider environment for … years, until its radioactivity decays to negligible levels.

Answer 12

They discussed technology being developed to construct permanent underground disposal sites known as deep geological repositories, such as a planned facility 0.5 km underground in Sweden with 65 km of tunnels. These repositories will aim to keep the waste out of reach of human beings and the wider environment for hundreds of thousands of years, until its radioactivity decays to negligible levels.

Question 13

‘The goal is to have three operational repositories within the European Union within x years,’ said Jan Gugala in 2013, project coordinator of …, an EU-funded project whose name is short for Large Underground Concept Experiments. One will be the planned site in …, while others are planned for … and ….

Answer 13

‘The goal is to have three operational repositories within the European Union within 15 years,’ said Jan Gugala in 2013, project coordinator of LUCOEX, an EU-funded project whose name is short for Large Underground Concept Experiments. One will be the planned site in Sweden, while others are planned for Finland and France.

Question 14

The Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management is the first legal instrument to address the issue of spent fuel and radioactive waste management safety on a … scale. It does so by establishing fundamental safety principles and creating a similar “…” process to the Convention on Nuclear Safety.

The Convention applies to spent fuel resulting from the operation of civilian nuclear reactors and to radioactive waste resulting from civilian applications. It also applies to spent fuel and radioactive waste from military or defence programmes if such materials are transferred permanently to and managed within exclusively …, or when declared as spent fuel or radioactive waste for the purpose of the Convention by the Contracting Party concerned. In addition, it covers … releases into the environment of liquid or gaseous radioactive materials from regulated nuclear facilities.

Answer 14

The Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management is the first legal instrument to address the issue of spent fuel and radioactive waste management safety on a global scale. It does so by establishing fundamental safety principles and creating a similar “peer review” process to the Convention on Nuclear Safety.

The Convention applies to spent fuel resulting from the operation of civilian nuclear reactors and to radioactive waste resulting from civilian applications. It also applies to spent fuel and radioactive waste from military or defence programmes if such materials are transferred permanently to and managed within exclusively civilian programmes, or when declared as spent fuel or radioactive waste for the purpose of the Convention by the Contracting Party concerned. In addition, it covers planned and controlled releases into the environment of liquid or gaseous radioactive materials from regulated nuclear facilities.

Question 15

The latest available data for the entire EU (end of 2016) shows that LLW makes
up X % of the volume of waste, while VLLW makes up X %, ILW X % and HLW X %.

Answer 15

The latest available data for the entire EU (end of 2016) shows that LLW makes
up 73 % of the volume of waste, while VLLW makes up 17 %, ILW 10 % and HLW 0.2 %.

Question 16

The spent fuel is considered …-level radioactive waste, and the two dominant options for managing it today are … and direct
disposal in …, or a mixture of both

Answer 16

The spent fuel is considered high-level radioactive waste, and the two dominant options for managing it today are reprocessing and direct
disposal in deep geological repositories, or a mixture of both

Question 17

Waste that does not need a high level of containment and isolation and, therefore, is suitable for disposal in near-surface, landfill-type facilities with limited regulatory control.

Answer 17

Very low level waste
These include clothing, paper towels, concrete used in nuclear power plants, research facilities, hospitals etc.

Question 18

Waste that is above clearance levels, but with limited amounts of long-lived radionucleides (which have a long radioactive life). Such waste requires robust isolation and containment for periods of up to a few hundred years. It is suitable for disposal in engineered near-surface facilities.

Answer 18

Low-level waste

These include clothing, paper towels, concrete used in nuclear power plants, research facilities, hospitals etc.

Question 19

Waste that, because of its content, particularly of long-lived radionucleides, requires a greater degree of containment and isolation than that provided by near surface disposal. However, it needs no provision, or only limited provision, for heat dissipation during its storage and disposal.

Answer 19

Intermediate level waste
Waste resulting from historical research activities, instrumentation used close to the core of the reactor

Question 20

Waste with levels of activity concentration high enough to generate significant quantities of heat by the radioactive decay process or waste with large amounts of long-lived radionucleides that need to be considered in the design of a disposal facility for such waste

Answer 20

High level waste
Residues remaining from the treatment/recycling of spent fuel

Question 21

Not later than … from the date of acknowledgement of receipt the competent authorities of all Member States concerned shall notify the competent authorities of the Member State of origin of their consent, or of the conditions which they consider necessary for giving their consent, or of their refusal to grant consent.

However, the competent authorities of the Member State of destination or of any Member State of transit may request a further period of not more than … in addition to the period referred to in the first subparagraph to make their position known.

Answer 21

Not later than two months from the date of acknowledgement of receipt the competent authorities of all Member States concerned shall notify the competent authorities of the Member State of origin of their consent, or of the conditions which they consider necessary for giving their consent, or of their refusal to grant consent.

However, the competent authorities of the Member State of destination or of any Member State of transit may request a further period of not more than one month in addition to the period referred to in the first subparagraph to make their position known.

Question 22

Over the last 50 years or so the principal reason for reprocessing used fuel has been to recover unused plutonium, along with less immediately useful unused uranium, in the used fuel elements and thereby close the fuel cycle, gaining some x% more energy from the original uranium in the process. This contributes to national energy security. A secondary reason is to reduce the volume of material to be disposed of as high-level waste to about x. In addition, the level of radioactivity in the waste from reprocessing is much smaller and after about x years falls much more rapidly than in used fuel itself.

Answer 22

Over the last 50 years or so the principal reason for reprocessing used fuel has been to recover unused plutonium, along with less immediately useful unused uranium, in the used fuel elements and thereby close the fuel cycle, gaining some 25-30% more energy from the original uranium in the process. This contributes to national energy security. A secondary reason is to reduce the volume of material to be disposed of as high-level waste to about one-fifth. In addition, the level of radioactivity in the waste from reprocessing is much smaller and after about 100 years falls much more rapidly than in used fuel itself.

Question 23

According to the IAEA, x of the spent fuel is reprocessed globally, and most of it is … until a final decision on processing/recycling or disposal

Answer 23

According to the IAEA, one third of the spent fuel is reprocessed globally, and most of it is stored until a final decision on processing/recycling or disposal

Question 24

Finland, France and Sweden have selected deep geological sites; the facilities will most likely open in … in Finland, around … in Sweden and around … in France. Other Member States also envisage building such sites, with the majority of them (i.e. Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia, Czechia and Spain) planning to commission
them for around ….

Answer 24

.Finland, France and Sweden have selected deep geological sites; the facilities will most likely open in 2024 in Finland, around 2032 in Sweden and around 2035 in France. Other Member States also envisage building such sites, with the majority of them (i.e. Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia, Czechia and Spain) planning to commission
them for around 2065.

Question 25

EU countries carry out self-assessments and invite international peer reviews of their national framework, competent authorities and/or national programme at least every x years.

The first full round of international peer reviews was carried out under the Integrated Review Service for Radioactive Waste and Spent Fuel Management, Decommissioning and Remediation (…) provided by the IAEA, and was completed in 2023;

Answer 25

EU countries carry out self-assessments and invite international peer reviews of their national framework, competent authorities and/or national programme at least every 10 years.

The first full round of international peer reviews was carried out under the Integrated Review Service for Radioactive Waste and Spent Fuel Management, Decommissioning and Remediation (ARTEMIS) provided by the IAEA, and was completed in 2023;