Radiation protection and environmental aspects

Question 1

The subject of the Convention goes to the heart of the relationship between people and governments. The Convention is not only an environmental agreement, it is also a Convention about government …, … and responsiveness. It grants the public rights and imposes on Parties and public authorities obligations regarding access to … and public participation and access to …. Moreover, the … … is also forging a new process for public participation in the negotiation and implementation of international agreements.

Answer 1

The subject of the Convention goes to the heart of the relationship between people and governments. The Convention is not only an environmental agreement, it is also a Convention about government accountability, transparency and responsiveness. It grants the public rights and imposes on Parties and public authorities obligations regarding access to information and public participation and access to justice. Moreover, the Aarhus Convention is also forging a new process for public participation in the negotiation and implementation of international agreements.

Question 2

The decommissioning of a nuclear facility involves activities ranging from the shutdown and removal of nuclear material to site restoration and the complete elimination of radiological hazards, and falls ultimately under the responsibility of …. In June 2018, the Commission adopted two proposals for a Council regulation (COM/2018/0466 and COM/2018/0467) establishing dedicated … for the decommissioning of nuclear facilities and the management of radioactive waste pertaining to the nuclear power stations in which 3 countries?, including nuclear research installations on four sites of the Commission’s Joint Research Centre.

Answer 2

The decommissioning of a nuclear facility involves activities ranging from the shutdown and removal of nuclear material to site restoration and the complete elimination of radiological hazards, and falls ultimately under the responsibility of the Member States. In June 2018, the Commission adopted two proposals for a Council regulation (COM/2018/0466 and COM/2018/0467) establishing dedicated financial programmes for the decommissioning of nuclear facilities and the management of radioactive waste pertaining to the nuclear power stations in Bulgaria (Kozloduy), Slovakia (Bohunice) and Lithuania (Ignalina), including nuclear research installations on four sites of the Commission’s Joint Research Centre.

Question 3

The vision of the … is : The coordinated approach of the Association will develop a common or harmonised approach for the interpretation of the regulations for the … in Europe. This will provide a proactive means of maintaining and developing a consistent high level of safety for the transport of radioactive material in Europe. Membership is voluntary.

Answer 3

The vision of the European Association of Competent Authorities is : The coordinated approach of the Association will develop a common or harmonised approach for the interpretation of the regulations for the transport of radioactive material in Europe. This will provide a proactive means of maintaining and developing a consistent high level of safety for the transport of radioactive material in Europe. Membership is voluntary.

Question 4

In summary, … is a research organization specializing in particle physics, operating large-scale experimental facilities like the LHC (Large Hadron Collider), while … is a collaborative platform focusing on advancing nuclear fission technology and ensuring the sustainability of nuclear energy within Europe.

Answer 4

In summary, CERN is a research organization specializing in particle physics, operating large-scale experimental facilities like the LHC (Large Hadron Collider), while SNETP is a collaborative platform focusing on advancing nuclear fission technology and ensuring the sustainability of nuclear energy within Europe.

Question 5

The … (ENS) is a Learned Society consisting of professionals in the nuclear sector.
Its main goal is to promote and advance science and engineering related to the peaceful uses of nuclear technologies.

Answer 5

The European Nuclear Society (ENS) is a Learned Society consisting of professionals in the nuclear sector.
Its main goal is to promote and advance science and engineering related to the peaceful uses of nuclear technologies.

Question 6

The … (SIT) is a kind of “birth control” of pests. It is based on mass breeding of male flies. These males are then sterilized by … and released massively into the wild, where they can no longer reproduce. By repeating this operation over several generations, the fly population declines and eventually disappears. SIT has been successfully applied in combating the Mediterranean fruit fly, or medfly, which attacks over 250 species of fruit and vegetables. So great is the potential damage of medfly that countries free of it prohibit imports of fresh produce from countries where the pest is endemic.

Answer 6

The Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) is a kind of “birth control” of pests. It is based on mass breeding of male flies. These males are then sterilized by gamma radiation and released massively into the wild, where they can no longer reproduce. By repeating this operation over several generations, the fly population declines and eventually disappears. SIT has been successfully applied in combating the Mediterranean fruit fly, or medfly, which attacks over 250 species of fruit and vegetables. So great is the potential damage of medfly that countries free of it prohibit imports of fresh produce from countries where the pest is endemic.

Question 7

By irradiation, … accelerates the natural process of spontaneous mutation of plants and creates useful characteristics that are not encountered in nature or that have disappeared during evolution.

In this context, nuclear technology induces a genetic mutation (…) to develop plants that are better adapted to their environmental and climatic conditions.

Answer 7

By irradiation, mutagenesis accelerates the natural process of spontaneous mutation of plants and creates useful characteristics that are not encountered in nature or that have disappeared during evolution.

In this context, nuclear technology induces a genetic mutation (mutagenesis) to develop plants that are better adapted to their environmental and climatic conditions.

Question 8

Do EU Member States have to carry out an EIA before authorising long-term operation of a nuclear plant?

Answer 8

No

Question 9

The Joint …/IAEA Center also helps countries to meet food safety requirements for export and to protect consumer health. It does this through training and technology transfer relating to nuclear and isotopic techniques, to support the detection of … and the post-harvest applications of …. … involves gamma, electron beam or X ray irradiation that prevents … from being able to reproduce and establish in new areas after export. It is a chemical-free way of enabling trade while meeting importers’ requirements on … safety, and is used on a range of products including … and ….

Answer 9

The Joint FAO/IAEA Center also helps countries to meet food safety requirements for export and to protect consumer health. It does this through training and technology transfer relating to nuclear and isotopic techniques, to support the detection of contaminants in food, and the post-harvest applications of food irradiation. Food irradiation involves gamma, electron beam or X ray irradiation that prevents insects from being able to reproduce and establish in new areas after export. It is a chemical-free way of enabling trade while meeting importers’ requirements on food safety, and is used on a range of products including fruits and vegetables.

Question 10

Imports of food shall comply with the following accumulated maximum permitted levels of radioactive contamination in terms of …:
(a) … Bq/kg for milk and milk products and for food for infants and young children
(b) … Bq/kg for all other products concerned.

Answer 10

Imports of food shall comply with the following accumulated maximum permitted levels of radioactive contamination in terms of caesium-137:
(a) 370 Bq/kg for milk and milk products and for food for infants and young children
(b) 600 Bq/kg for all other products concerned.

Question 11

Directive for health professionals in radiology:
The limit on the equivalent dose for the lens of the eye shall be x mSv in a single year
The limit on the equivalent dose for the skin and extremities shall be x mSv in a year
For pregnant women, x mSv
For breestfeeder women, x mSv

Answer 11

Directive for health professionals in radiology:
The limit on the equivalent dose for the lens of the eye shall be 20 mSv in a single year
The limit on the equivalent dose for the skin and extremities shall be 500 mSv in a year
For pregnant women, 1 mSv
For breestfeeder women, 0 mSv

Question 12

On x the Commission lifted the import restrictions for food following the nuclear accident at Fukushima.

Shortly after the accident, the EU imposed thorough pre-export testing of food products for radioactivity. Measures have been reviewed by the Commission … and have been progressively … as risks declined.

A strict maximum level of … Bq/kg has been in place in the EU for food from Japan since June 2011.

This maximum has …, demonstrating the effectiveness of the Japanese control and monitoring systems.

Answer 12

On 2023 the Commission lifted the import restrictions for food following the nuclear accident at Fukushima.

Shortly after the accident, the EU imposed thorough pre-export testing of food products for radioactivity. Measures have been reviewed by the Commission every second year and have been progressively eased as risks declined.

A strict maximum level of 100 Bq/kg has been in place in the EU for food from Japan since June 2011.

This maximum has always been fully respected, demonstrating the effectiveness of the Japanese control and monitoring systems.

Question 13

At present, women make up only x% of the workforce in the nuclear sector, according to data from the IAEA.

Women in Nuclear (WiN), a non-profit organization with 35,000 members in x countries.

As of the end of 2017, the proportion of women in the professional and higher categories at the IAEA reached x%.

Answer 13

At present, women make up only 22.4% of the workforce in the nuclear sector, according to data from the IAEA.

Women in Nuclear (WiN), a non-profit organization with 35,000 members in 109 countries.

As of the end of 2017, the proportion of women in the professional and higher categories at the IAEA reached 29%.

Question 14

EU’s radiation protection rules are based on the Euratom Treaty and aims at maintaining and enhancing the high level of protection of individuals, pursuing a better understanding of radiation risks, and ensuring adequate … and …

Answer 14

EU’s radiation protection rules are based on the Euratom Treaty and aims at maintaining and enhancing the high level of protection of individuals, pursuing a better understanding of radiation risks, and ensuring adequate preparedness and response

Question 15

The EU has more than 60 years of experience, since x when the first Directive laying down basic safety standards was adopted, in developing and implementing radiation protection legislation, aiming at ensuring the highest level of protection of individuals from ionising radiation

Answer 15

The EU has more than 60 years of experience, since 1959 when the first Directive laying down basic safety standards was adopted, in developing and implementing radiation protection legislation, aiming at ensuring the highest level of protection of individuals from ionising radiation

Question 16

In this respect, the Treaty defines “basic standards” for the protection of the health of workers and the general public against the dangers arising from ionising radiation, and defines the process of developing such standards. On this basis, a comprehensive body of secondary legislation – with the … Directive at its centre – has been enacted over the years.

Answer 16

In this respect, the Treaty defines “basic standards” for the protection of the health of workers and the general public against the dangers arising from ionising radiation, and defines the process of developing such standards. On this basis, a comprehensive body of secondary legislation – with the Basic Safety Standards Directive at its centre – has been enacted over the years.

Question 17

In addition, the Treaty requires the EU countries to

• establish the facilities necessary to carry out continuous monitoring of the level of radioactivity in the …, … and …, which can be verified by the Commission
• communicate … to the Commission information on the results of this monitoring
• provide the Commission with such general data relating to any … for the disposal of radioactive waste so that the Commission can determine any potential radioactive contamination of the water, soil or airspace of …

Answer 17

n addition, the Treaty requires the EU countries to

• establish the facilities necessary to carry out continuous monitoring of the level of radioactivity in the air, water and soil, which can be verified by the Commission
• communicate periodically to the Commission information on the results of this monitoring
• provide the Commission with such general data relating to any plan for the disposal of radioactive waste so that the Commission can determine any potential radioactive contamination of the water, soil or airspace of another EU Member State

Question 18

The BSSD covers all relevant radiation sources, including … radiation sources, and integrates the protection of …, members of the … and ….

It also deals with all types of exposure situations, distinguishing between …, …, and … situations. The directive takes account of the status of science and technology, notably of the recommendations made by the … (ICRP).

Answer 18

The BSSD covers all relevant radiation sources, including natural radiation sources, and integrates the protection of workers, members of the public and patients.

It also deals with all types of exposure situations, distinguishing between planned, existing, and emergency situations. The directive takes account of the status of science and technology, notably of the recommendations made by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP).

Question 19

Council Directive 2013/51/Euratom lays down requirements for the protection of the health of the general public with regard to radioactive substances in … intended for human consumption. Considering that the ingestion of … is one of the pathways of incorporation of radioactive substances -inluding …- into the human body, it is important to set quality standards which have an indicator function and to provide for the monitoring of compliance with those standards.

Answer 19

Council Directive 2013/51/Euratom lays down requirements for the protection of the health of the general public with regard to radioactive substances in water intended for human consumption. Considering that the ingestion of water is one of the pathways of incorporation of radioactive substances -inluding Radon- into the human body, it is important to set quality standards which have an indicator function and to provide for the monitoring of compliance with those standards.

Question 20

In practice, if the Commission receives official information on a nuclear accident or radiological emergency which can lead to or has led to significant radioactive … and … contamination, it adopts an implementing Regulation, which lays down rules for the introduction of such … and … into the market and triggers the application of the maximum permitted levels of radioactive contamination already established in Council Regulation (Euratom) 2016/52. The implementing regulations adopted after the nuclear accidents of Chernobyl in 1986, revised in …, and of Fukushima in 2011, revised in ….

Answer 20

In practice, if the Commission receives official information on a nuclear accident or radiological emergency which can lead to or has led to significant radioactive food and feed contamination, it adopts an implementing Regulation, which lays down rules for the introduction of such food and feed into the market and triggers the application of the maximum permitted levels of radioactive contamination already established in Council Regulation (Euratom) 2016/52. The implementing regulations adopted after the nuclear accidents of Chernobyl in 1986, revised in 2024, and of Fukushima in 2011, revised in 2023.

Question 21

The European Commission carries out verifications of arrangements for monitoring radioactivity in …, …, … and … in all EU countries.

Answer 21

The European Commission carries out verifications of arrangements for monitoring radioactivity in air, water, soil and foodstuffs in all EU countries.

Question 22

Verification targets are selected according to their radiological … or …; the visits are announced to the country concerned at least x months in advance. However, in the event of a significant radioactive release, or other radiation event arousing public interest, the Commission can carry out a verification visit ….

Answer 22

Verification targets are selected according to their radiological significance or public interest; the visits are announced to the country concerned at least 3 months in advance. However, in the event of a significant radioactive release, or other radiation event arousing public interest, the Commission can carry out a verification visit on short notice.

Question 23

Nuclear sites, in particular nuclear power stations and reprocessing sites, are … airborne and liquid radioactive effluents into the environment on condition that these … abide by conditions and restrictions set in their operating licenses.

The radioactivity of … is measured, and the results must be communicated to the European Commission as this helps it to evaluate the exposure of populations and compare the levels of radioactivity in different EU countries. Between 1995 and 2008, the Commission published a series of publications on the … of radioactive ….

The Commission’s … (RADD) compiles the information provided by EU countries.

Answer 23

Nuclear sites, in particular nuclear power stations and reprocessing sites, are entitled to discharge airborne and liquid radioactive effluents into the environment on condition that these discharge operations abide by conditions and restrictions set in their operating licenses.

The radioactivity of discharges is measured, and the results must be communicated to the European Commission as this helps it to evaluate the exposure of populations and compare the levels of radioactivity in different EU countries. Between 1995 and 2008, the Commission published a series of publications on the release of radioactive effluents.

The Commission’s Radioactive Discharges Database (RADD) compiles the information provided by EU countries.

Question 24

Commission Recommendation 2010/635/Euratom defines the information that EU countries must submit to allow the Commission to correctly evaluate the potential health impact of a new … plan.

This information allows the Commission to assess whether the planned disposal of radioactive waste is … to result in the contamination of the water, soil or airspace of another EU country. It must include the envisaged authorised releases of radioactive substances under …, and also a description of ….

A dedicated … is appointed for a 5-year period, as referred to in the Euratom Treaty Article 37, to assist the Commission in the evaluation work.

Answer 24

Commission Recommendation 2010/635/Euratom defines the information that EU countries must submit to allow the Commission to correctly evaluate the potential health impact of a new release plan.

This information allows the Commission to assess whether the planned disposal of radioactive waste is liable to result in the contamination of the water, soil or airspace of another EU country. It must include the envisaged authorised releases of radioactive substances under normal operation, and also a description of what could happen in the event of an accident.

A dedicated group of experts is appointed for a 5-year period, as referred to in the Euratom Treaty Article 37, to assist the Commission in the evaluation work.

Question 25

Radioactive sources are used in medicine, research and industrial activities. The radioactive material is sealed in small … containers and, as long as it is handled and disposed of correctly, it does not pose any threat to human health or the environment.

However, these sources can be lost, abandoned or even stolen. Radioactive material can fall in the hands of people without licence, or the correct knowledge how to handle it. It can also end up in … recycling plants, leading to accidental contamination. These radioactive sources, which are outside regulatory control, are called … sources.

Answer 25

Radioactive sources are used in medicine, research and industrial activities. The radioactive material is sealed in small metal containers and, as long as it is handled and disposed of correctly, it does not pose any threat to human health or the environment.

However, these sources can be lost, abandoned or even stolen. Radioactive material can fall in the hands of people without licence, or the correct knowledge how to handle it. It can also end up in scrap metal recycling plants, leading to accidental contamination. These radioactive sources, which are outside regulatory control, are called orphan sources.