QUIZ 6 Flashcards
1
Q
components of circulatory system
A
- blood
- red bone marrow
- heart
- vessels
- lymphatic system
2
Q
blood as connective tissue
A
- connective tissue:
- cells- various blood cells (RBCS, WBC, macrophages)
- fluid- water based fluid
- fibers- dissolved protein fibers (fibrin)
- ground substance- fluid ground substance -> plasma
3
Q
blood
A
- plasma- 55% (volume)
- H2O- 92% (weight)
- proteins- 7%
- electrolytes- 1%
- cells and cell fragments- 45% (volume) -> red 99%, white .01%, platelets .99% (formed elements)
- hematocrit- measure of blood cell volume percentage, a common test for anemia
4
Q
red blood cells
A
- erythrocytes
- hemoglobin- protein that transport oxygen and carbon dioxide
- transports from high oxygenated regions to other parts
- transports CO2 form high concentration back to lungs
- formed in hemopoietic marrow (red marrow)
- destroyed (phagocytized) in liver and spleen
- spleen stores RBC’s
5
Q
antigen and antibodies
A
- antigen- substances capable of stimulating an immune response -> some are bound to cell surface (surface antigens)
- antibody- proteins that recognize and immobilize a specific antigen -> stimulate an immune response
- when antibodies bind to erythrocytes surface antigens, this leads to agglutination (clumps of cells that can prevent normal blood circulation and/or cell rupture)
6
Q
blood types
A
- receiving blood that isnt your blood type leads to agglutination
- ABO blood type-
- type A- specific surface antigen A -> produce anti-B antibodies -> type B binds and causes agglutination
- type B- surface antigen B -> anti-A antibodies
- type AB- surface antigens A and B -> they have no anti-A or anti-B -> universal acceptor
- type O -> neither surface antigen A or B -> produces both anti-A and anti-B antibodies -> universal donor
7
Q
would we expect agglutination to occur in a type A person who receives a transfusion of type AB blood
A
- yes
- type A has anti-B antibodies and AB blood has surface antigen B
8
Q
Rh
A
- Rh positive- have surface antigen D and no anti-D antibodies
- Rh negative- have no surface antigen D and no anti-D antibodies (except when this person has be exposed to Rh+ blood previously)
- if a pregnant persons child is Rh+ and the mother is Rh- -> the blood from the child transfers to the mother
- if she has another baby her Rh+ can transfer to the baby and cause agglutination -> problem!
- checked in pregnant mothers
9
Q
white blood cells
A
- leukocytes
- immune response agents
- defend against pathogens
- 5 major types
- leukemia:
- increased production of leukocytes at expense of erythrocytes and platelets within red bone marrow
- bone marrow transplant may be prescribed in some cases
10
Q
platelets
A
- thrombocytes
- small irregular cell fragments
- form clots in combination with dissolved fibrin
- release clotting agent
- thrombus- stationary clot in vessel -> can be bad is in pulmonary system
- embolus- detached clot
11
Q
heart: pericardium
A
- outer layer limits movement of heart within thorax
- outer layer is attached to other organs (diaphragm)
- outer layer prevents the heart from being over filled with blood
- outer layer -> fibrous pericardium -> dense connective tissue
- deeper layer- provides lubrication
- serous pericardium (inner layer)- 2 layers -> parietal serous membrane (loose connective tissue and epithelium) and visceral serous
- mediastinum
- attached to other organs -> diaphragm
- prevents the heart from being overfilled with blood
12
Q
pulmonary circulation
A
- receives deoxygenated blood from the right side of heart -> to lungs
- CO2 is passed in tissue
13
Q
systemic cirulation
A
- oxygenated
- left side of heart -> blood supply to the rest of the organs (systemic cells)
14
Q
pericarditis
A
- swelling and irritation of serous membrane and heart
- sharp pain in heart
- inner layers of pericardium provide lubrication to prevent this
- pain is picked up by left arm and heart
15
Q
fibrous pericardium
A
- dense connective tissue
- outer layer of pericardium
- prevents distention
- prevents overfilling
- continuous with the diaphragm and major vessels (inferior vena cava, aorta, esophagus)
- binds strongly to the inferior vena cava and aorta and esophagus
- outermost layer of pericardium
16
Q
serous pericardium
A
- inner layer of pericardium
- 2 layers -> parietal serous membrane and visceral serous pericardium (epicardium)
- a serous membrane is a combination of loose connective tissue and epithelium
- lines the inner part of the fibrous pericardium (parietal layer) and the outside of the heart (visceral layer)
- epithelium layer of tissue is pointing inward, facing the space in between the parietal and visceral layers -> produces the serous fluid -> prevents friction between the visceral and parietal layers of serous pericardium
- lubrication
- parietal layer- outer layer -> touching the fibrous pericardium
- visceral layer- surround the heart -> outer layer of the heart wall
- visceral layer is also known as epicardium
- areolar connective tissue and fat
- binds the simple squamous epithelium-> producing the serous fluid
17
Q
myocardium
A
- deep to the visceral layer of the serous pericardium
- cardiac muscles cells
- deep to visceral layer
- short, branched cardiac muscles cells
- striated muscle
- intercalated discs- electrical junctions
- open gap junctions
- ions pass from one cell to another freely -> depolarization of one cell causes continuous flow -> systemic and smooth contraction of heart muscle wall
- fast and continuous signal
- cells are shorter, branched, striated, y-shaped
- thickest part
18
Q
endocardium
A
- deepest layer of heart
- surrounding the atria and ventricles
- areolar connective tissue and endothelium (simple squamous epithelium)
- has areolar connective tissue which connects the endothelium to myocardium
- endothelium layer of the endocardium is simple squamous epithelium
- continuous with endothelium that lines the blood vessels of the arteries and veins
19
Q
fibrous skeleton
A
- connected to myocardium
- dense connective tissue that reinforces the valves found in between heart chambers
- serves as electrical insulator between atria and ventricles
- septum
- provides support to valves
- forms a layer in between atrium and ventricles -> prevents the electrical flow from atria to ventricles (electrical insulator)
20
Q
semilunar vales
A
-between ventricles and arteries
21
Q
chambers
A
- atrium receives blood from outside of heart from veins (vena cava and pulmonary veins)
- ventricles expel blood into arteries
- ventricles- expel blood into arteries
- right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from vena cava
- flows into the right ventricle while relaxed
- ventricle expels the deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary artery/ circulation
- pulmonary veins returns oxygenated blood into left atrium
- flows into the left ventricle to systemic cells via aorta
22
Q
valves
A
- atria to ventricle -> cuspid valves (atrioventricular valve)
- bicuspid on left
- tricuspid on the right
- ventricle to artery -> semilunar valves
- pulmonary semilunar valve on the right
- aortic semilunar valve on the left
- semilunar vales have 3 cups
- valves are flaps of tissue
- free edges of valves go into the ventricles
- high pressure in ventricles -> closes the valves and prevents back flow
23
Q
right atrium
A
- deoxygenated blood enter the right atrium from the superior and inferior vena cava
- walls of atrium are thin (myocardium)
- less pressure is required
- fossa ovalis- medial side of atrium wall -> important fetal blood circulation (flap fuses)
- right atrioventricular valve- tricuspid valve -> goes to right ventricle
24
Q
right ventricle
A
- receives blood from right atrium
- thicker walls
- 3 major papillary muscles
- corda tendinae- strings that close the valves when muscle contracts
- papillary muscles contract and hold the corda tendinae tight -> closes bicuspid
- semilunar valve opens to the pulmonary semilunar valve
- trabeculae carneae muscles- in the wall of the right ventricle
- less thick then the left ventricle
25
Q
left atrium
A
- oxygenated blood goes to left atrium via pulmonary vein
- left and right pulmonary vein
- thin wall
- from left atrium to left ventricle -> bicuspid valve
26
Q
left ventricle
A
- thick walls
- trabeculae carnae in muscle wall
- pumps blood to the aorta via aortic semilunar valve
- papillary muscles and corda tendinae (string) prevent back flow
27
Q
cardiac cycle
A
- defined based on contraction of ventricles
- atrial systole (ventricular diastole)- atria contract
- ventricular systole (atrial diastole)- ventricles contract
1. ventricular diastole- relaxed -> blood flow into atria
2. passive blood flow from atria to ventricle (80% due to pressure and gravity)
3. at the end of ventricular diastole (relaxation) -> atria contract -> push last bit of blood into the ventricles -> higher blood pressure in ventricles
4. ventricular systole- AV valves close -> ventricular contraction -> semilunar valves open
5. ventricular ejection- blood moves through the semilunar valves into the arteries
6. ventricles relax and the pressure in the arteries closes the semilunar valves
7. repeat
28
Q
systole
A
- contraction of ventricles
- closed AV valves
- open semilunar valves
- pumps blood into circulation
- systole- allowing blood to pass into the arties
29
Q
diastole
A
- relaxation of ventricles
- closed semilunar valves
- open AV valves
- atrial compression pushing blood from atria into ventricles
30
Q
lub
A
- as ventricles compress during systole -> closure of AV valves
- systolic
- AV valve close
31
Q
dup
A
diastolic
- semilunar valve closure
- semilunar valves close due to pressure in arteries
- beginning of diastole
- relaxation of ventricles
32
Q
sinoatrial (SA) node
A
- does not require active neural signaling
- impulse starts here
- beginning of impulse
- contracts atrium
- superior part of right atrium
33
Q
atrioventricular (AV) node
A
- signal from the sinoatrial node
- must pass here to atrioventricular bundle (lines of transmission)
- within the cardiac muscle
- branches to left and right
- go to purkinje fibers
- ventricles contract from inferior to superior
34
Q
epicardium
A
- visceral layer of the serous pericardium
- surrounds the heart
- outer layer of the heart wall
- areolar connective tissue and fat
- binds the simple squamous epithelium -> producing the serous fluid
35
Q
ventricular systole and diastole
A
-measure blood pressure
36
Q
heart innervation
A
- dont need signaling to beat
- sympathetic innervation- via vagus nerve -> increase in heart rate
- parasympathetic innervation- via cervical sympathetic ganglion (superior in sympathetic chain) -> decrease heart rate
- cell body is within sympathetic ganglion
37
Q
coronary circulation
A
- pressure is too high and fast for heart
- aorta -> left coronary artery -> anterior interventricular circumflex
- aorta -> right coronary artery -> marginal posterior interventricular
- great cardiac vein -> coronary sinus -> right atrium
- small cardiac vein and middle cardiac vein -> coronary sinus -> right atrium
38
Q
arteries
A
- blood pressure
- away from the heart
- branches get smaller
- oxygenated in the systemic system
- oxygenates the tissues
- narrower lumen -> higher blood pressure
- no valves
- tunica media thickest (middle layer)
- more elastic
- elastic arteries (many elastic fibers) -> muscular arteries (more smooth muscle fibers) -> arteriole (< 6 smooth muscle layers)
39
Q
veins
A
- adult circulation
- towards the heart
- branches get larger
- deoxygenated in the systemic system
- larger lumen
- valves -> prevents back flow
- required bc lower blood pressure
- tunica externa thickest (outer layer)
- less elastic
- large vein -> medium veins (many valves) -> venule
40
Q
capillaries
A
- pulmonary
- systemic
- portal systems
- tiny
- connect arteries to veins
- just tunica intima
- basement membrane of endothelium
- precapillary sphincters RELAX between arterioles and capillary
- blood flows into true capillaries
- nutrients are delivered
- 5-10 cycles per minute
- precapillary sphincters CONTRACT
- blood flows directly into veins
- no nutrients delivered
41
Q
layers of arteries and veins
A
- tunica intima- inner most:
- endothelium (continuous with internal layer of the heart)
- elastic tissue (especially for arteries)
- tunica media- middle layer:
- smooth muscle- reduce diameter and helps push blood through
- regulates blood pressure and how much blood is going where
- tunica externa- outer layer:
- collagen and elastic fibers
- nerves and lymphatics
- vasa vasorum (blood vessels) -> helps oxygen and nutrients move from the artery to the tissues (especially for large arteries)
-these layers are in veins and arteries
42
Q
blood flow
A
-heart -> artery -> arteriole -> capillary -> venule -> vein -> heart
43
Q
muscular artery
A
-have more smooth muscle compared to elastic artery (has more elastic)
44
Q
what type of blood vessel is subjected to the highest blood pressure
A
- artery
- left ventricle pumps blood into aorta -> has much thicker wall
- large arteries are receiving the full pressure from the ventricle contraction
- pressure decreases from there due to branching
- specially the elastic arteries
45
Q
arteriole
A
-< 6 smooth muscle layers
46
Q
tunica intima of arteries
A
- endothelium
- elastic tissue
- allows for expansion and recoil -> maintain round shape
- pressure reservoir -> aborb blood flow from the left ventricle of the heart without damage
- acts with each ventricular diastole (relaxation) to propel blood -> allows for a continuous flow
- elastic recoil continues to push blood forward during diastole
47
Q
tunica media of arteries
A
- smooth muscles
- affect blood pressure
- contraction increases blood pressure
- relaxation to decrease blood pressure -> increases blood to tissue
- thicker within the arteries
48
Q
structure of veins
A
- blood pressure is lower
- fighting against gravity
- skeletal muscle pump- staying active -> skeletal muscles surrounding will contract and increase pressure -> blood is pushed towards the heart
- valves- as blood moves up the vein -> pressure fills up cups in valves -> avoids back flow
- combination of valves and skeletal muscle pump pushes blood forward and prevents back flow
49
Q
varicose veins
A
- some of the fluid is allows to back flow and pool
- pooling of blood leads to high pressure in the veins
- pushes plasma and fluid out
- usually in legs or inferiorly
- use compression socks
50
Q
respiratory pump
A
- area surrounding the veins when there is high pressure -> pushes the blood upwards toward the heart
- areas where there is low pressure will receive blood
- action of the diaphragm
- when diaphragm contracts -> increases the volume of thorax -> reduces the pressure -> low pressure in lungs -> increases pressure in abdomen -> pushes on veins -> pushes on veins in the abdomen towards the thorax
- diaphragm relaxes -> smaller volume of thorax -> higher pressure in thorax -> low pressure abdomen -> pushes venous blood towards the heart
51
Q
continuous capillaries
A
- lung
- skeletal muscles
- endothelial cells are touching each other
- continuous cell membrane
- gas can pass through but cells cant
52
Q
fenestrated capillaries
A
- kidney- filtration
- intestines- transmission of larger molecule nutrients
- endocrine glands- hormones pass into blood
- endothelial cells have holes in them
- holes allow for the passage of fluid easily
- larger molecules are dissolved in the fluid
53
Q
sinusoid (discontinuous) capillaries
A
- liver
- spleen- rbcs pass
- red marrow- blood cells
- fats and cells are passing through
54
Q
blood pressure
A
- brachial artery on inner arm
- larger arteries have higher blood pressure
- sphygmomanometer
- first beats- systolic pressure
- beats stop- diastolic pressure
- increase pressure in the sleeve until you cant hear -> stops blood flow
- 120/80-140/90
- higher is hypertension -> caused by artherosclerosis
55
Q
pulmonary circulation
A
- right ventricle -> pulmonary artery -> lungs
- gas exchange between alveoli and capillaries
- pulmonary arteries pass deoxygenated blood to capillary beds of alveoli
- pulmonary veins bring oxygenated blood to the left atrium
56
Q
which valve prevents blood in systemic circulation from flowing backwards into the heart
A
-aortic valve
57
Q
anastamoses
A
- permit collateral circulation
- collateral circulation- multiple parallel paths of circulation that start at the same point and end at the same point
- smaller vessels can merge or go into larger vessels
- circle of willis
58
Q
portal systems
A
- 2 sets of capillaries connected by larger vessels (portal vein)
- transports products to next region without being distributed by the heart (high concentrations)
- if a product exists in the first capillary bed it will go to the second capillary bed in high concentration without being distributed anywhere else first
59
Q
portal systems: hypothalamic-hypophyseal
A
- hepatic
- nephronic
- capillaries in- hypothalamus anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
60
Q
hepatic portal system
A
- transmits from the capillaries surrounding digestive system towards the liver
- filters products that are digested
- maintains a high concentration of digested product from the digestion system to the liver before going to heart
61
Q
nephronic portal system
A
- capillaries in glomerulus and peritubular capillaries
- associated with structures of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion
62
Q
lymphatic system
A
- takes fluid from the circulatory system that is ejected
- organ system
- similar to and intimately associated with the cardiovascular system
- returns interstitial fluid to blood stream
- transport products of fat digestion
- fats arnt filtered
- filter foreign substances and dead cells from lymph in nodes and from blood in spleen
- comprise part of immune system
63
Q
four components of lymphatic system
A
- lymph
- lymph vessels
- lymph organs: nodes, spleen, thymus
- diffuse patches of lymphatic tissue: tonsils and peyers patches
64
Q
lymphatics: return interstitial fluid to blood stream
A
- capillary beds releases the fluid -> interstitial fluid- leaked fluid from capillaries
- fluid builds up in the tissue surrounding capillary beds
- no RBCs
- no platelets
- there are macrophages (phagocytes
- there are lymphocytes (various leukocyte derived immune cells)
- there are dissolved lipids (fat)
- not the same as plasma
- thin lymphatic vessels are directly associated and found with the capillary beds
- lymphatics bring it back to the blood
- lymphedema- swelling of tissue due to accumulation of interstitial fluid, often the result of lymphatic system blockage
- treated with compression
65
Q
lymph vessels
A
- capillary
- lymphatic vessels
- lymphatic trunk
- lymph duct
- go from the small vessels that merge into larger vessels until the lymph is dumped back to the subclavian arteries
- capillary -> lymphatic vessels -> lymphatic trunk -> lymph duct -> subclavian veins
- small -> large
66
Q
lymph vessels: capillary
A
- smallest
- larger diameter than the vascular capillary
- they have closed ends -> no entrance
- transmit the interstitial fluid from around the soft tissue of the capillary beds
- intertwined with systemic capillary
- go from the small vessels that merge into larger vessels until the lymph is dumped back to the subclavian arteries
- in villi of small intestine -> lacteals
- fat + lymph = chyle
- too big to go into vascular capillaries
- single layer of overlapping endothelial cells that are not totally fused
- no basement membrane
- adjacent cells can move apart from one another where they overlap (one way door)
- high pressure in interstitial space “doors” push in (open) -> pushes interstitial fluid into the lymph capillaries
- high pressure inside capillary “doors” push out (close) -> fluid retained within lymph capillary
67
Q
lymph vessels
A
- larger diameter and more structure
- overlapping endothelial cells
- walls are thinner than veins
- contains more valves than veins
- pass through lymph node
- afferent vessels (into nodes)
- efferent vessels (out of node)
- lymph nodes are strung along the lymph vessels
68
Q
lymphatic drainage
A
- lymphatic drainage everywhere
- entire body except:
- CNS- although evidence of dural lymph drainage (has its drainage)
- cornea
- maybe teeth or bone
- superficial structures- lymph vessel from superficial structures paths of superficial veins (axillary lymph nodes)
- deep structures (except lungs)- lymph vessels from deep structures follow paths of arteries
- lymphatic drainage of lungs follow tracheobronchial tree upwards
- inguinal lymph nodes lie along internal, external and common iliac arteries (deep)
- lymph nodes typically named for associated artery (deep)
69
Q
which type of blood vessels would a lymphatic vessel draining the scalp likely follow
A
-superficial veins
70
Q
lymphatic trunk
A
- trunks are paired (one both sides of body)
- drain major regions of the body
- jugular- head, neck (travels along jugular vein)
- subclavian- upper limb, breast (travels along the subclavian vein/artery)
- bronchomediastinal- thoracic organs
- intestinal- abdominal organs
- lumbar- pelvis, lower limb
71
Q
lymph duct
A
- there are 2
- *thoracic duct- starts in cistern (intestinal and lumbar merge and drain) -> sometimes the bronchomediastinal
- travels up to the left side of body
- drains into the LEFT brachiocephalic vein
- *right lymphatic duct- merging of the jugular and subclavian (sometimes the bronchomediastinal)
- 1/3 of body drainage
- drains into the RIGHT brachiocephalic vein
72
Q
what lymphatic trunk would probably drain lymph from the right cheek
A
-right jugular
73
Q
lymph flow: how does it move forward
A
- skeletal muscle contractions (like veins) -> increases pressure and valves prevent backflow
- pulsation of adjacent artery- high pressure arterial flow (cyclical) running next to deep lymph vessels
- intrinsic smooth muscle
- overall pretty slow
74
Q
lymph nodes
A
- filters lymph -> antigens and debris
- immune response to antigens (tag them)
- found in clusters so that lymph flows through multiple nodes (axillary lymph nodes)
- medullary sinus- where lymph flows
- cortex areas- maturation of immune cells -> fluid slows here and is filtered
- lymphocytes = leukocytes -> mature here
- response to antigens -> more lymphocytes and antibodies produced, antibodies bind to, tag, and help destroy antigen displaying cells
- enlargement of nodes
- afferent- lymph vessels are are flowing in
- efferent- lymph vessels are flowing out
75
Q
what direction is lymph flowing through an afferent vessel, relative to a lymph node
A
-into the lymph node
76
Q
valves point
A
in the direction of flow
77
Q
spleen
A
- largest lymph organ
- monitors blood for antigens
- similar to lymph nodes but for blood
- site of erythrocyte phagocytosis
- blood cell (formed element) reservoir)
- erythrocytes reenter circulation when needed (exercise)
- blood enters
- filters plasma
- efferent lymph vessels transmit filtered fluid into lymphatic system
78
Q
thymus
A
- important at birth -> very important at puberty -> not so important adult
- site of T-lymphocyte maturation before they are found within the lymph nodes
- T-lymphocytes recognize antigens and start immune response
- tag antigens and start immune response
79
Q
diffuse patches of lymphatic tissues
A
- exposed lymphatic tissue
- clusters of lymphatic cells not surrounded by connective tissues
- pharyngeal tonsils- back of nasopharynx
- palatine tonsils- back of oral cavity
- lingual tonsils- posterior to tongue
- filter debris that pass
- sites where pathogens are collected and produce a immune response
80
Q
peyer patches
A
- on the walls of small intestine
- deep to villi
- found within ileum
- pathogenic microorganisms digested with food -> tagged and leads an immune response
- diffuse patch of lymphatic tissue
81
Q
respiratory system
A
- upper respiratory system: nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharynx
- lower respiratory system: larynx, trachea, respiratory tree, lungs and pleura
- muscles of respiration
82
Q
functions of respiratory system
A
- gas exchange
- gas conditioning- maintaining moisture and temperature
- sounds production
- olfaction- bring gas towards olfactory neurons
- defense
83
Q
upper respiratory system
A
-nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharynx
-
84
Q
nasal cavity functions
A
- gas exchange- nasal breathing
- gas conditioning- epithelial layer is covered in mucous (moisture) and capillaries (heat)
- sound production- a resonance chamber for speech
- olfaction- turbulence brings odorants to olfactory epithelium
- defense- hairs and mucous trap particles and organisms
85
Q
nasal cavity bones and paranasal sinuses
A
- bone- nasal, vomer, inferior nasal concha, lacrimal, palatine
- bones with sinuses- frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, maxilla
- paranasal sinuses:
- connected to nasal cavity
- lined with nasal epithelium
- common site of infection
- no known function
86
Q
pharynx
A
- nasopharynx- behind pharynx -> respiratory
- oropharynx- behind oral cavity -> respiratory and digestive
- laryngopharynx- behind larynx -> digestive
- auditory tube- pressure in ears
- soft palate- swings up and prevents fluid and bolus from being passed into the pharynx
- epiglottis- cartilaginous, prevents food from going into respiratory
- palataglossus- elevates tongue
- palatapharygeus- elevates larynx and pharynx
87
Q
pharyngeal epithelium
A
- cilia- can help sweep trapped particles in the mucous towards nasal aperture (away from pharynx)
- stratified squamous epithelium multiple layers of cells ready to replace outer layer if it is lost
- nasopharynx- pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
- oro- and laryngopharynx- non-keritanized stratified squamous epithelium
- goblet cells- produce mucous
88
Q
given what you know about epithelium which portion(s) of the pharynx are covered in stratified squamous epithelium
A
- laryngopharynx
- oropharynx
- associated with digestion so the scraping of food can tear away at layers of cells
89
Q
wall muscles of pharynx
A
- constrict in sequence to force bolus of food into esophagus
- superior constrictor
- middle constrictor
- inferior constrictor
- constrict from superior to inferior
- palatopharyngeus- swallowing muscle
90
Q
nasal choanae
A
-nasal cavity opening
91
Q
laryngeal inlet
A
-where air will move from the respiratory system into the larynx into the lower respiratory system
92
Q
trachea
A
-transmits air to lungs
93
Q
larynx
A
- cartilages
- unpaired- 3:
- thyroid cartilage- largest
- cricoid cartilage
- epiglottis- flap that covers laryngeal inlet
- paired cartilages:
- cuneiform- found in ligaments and soft tissue between epiglottis and other cartilages
- arytenoid- largest of paired, critical for speech and sound, attached to vocal cords
- corniculate- binds to ligaments and muscles for speech
- pivoting of paired cartilages leads to opening or closing of vocal folds
94
Q
vocal folds
A
- rima glottidis- area between vocal folds -> Changes pitch
- vocal folds are epithelium covered ligaments that connect the thyroid and the arytenoid cartilages
- vibrate -> sound
- arytenoid and corniculate rotated towards midline (adduction) -> closing of vocal folds
- lateral abduction -of arytenoid and corniculate> opening of vocal folds
- increase tension of vocal cords (or smaller larynx) -> higher pitch
- decrease tension of vocal cords (larger larynx) -> lower pitch
95
Q
cricothyroid muscle
A
- connects the cricoid cartilage thyroid cartilage
- elongates
- increase tension of the vocal cords
- pulls thyroid cartilage towards the cricoid
96
Q
thyroarytenoid
A
- decreases tension
- relaxes vocal cords
97
Q
arytenoideus
A
- pulls medially
- adducts
- closing vocal folds
98
Q
lateral cricoarytenoid
A
- rotates
- adduction
- closing vocal folds
99
Q
posterior cricoarytenoid
A
- abducts
- opening vocal folds
- rotates
100
Q
trachea
A
- series of C-shaped cartilages
- trachealis- smooth muscle posteriorly
- sympathetic- relaxation of trachealis
- parasympathetic- constriction of trachealis
101
Q
tracheotomy
A
- incision is made superior to suprasternal notch
- thyroid may have to be cut as well
- incision from cricoid cartilage
102
Q
respiratory (bronchial) tree
A
- 3 structural divisions:
- bronchus: cartilage, muscle, glands
- bronchiole: no cartilage, has smooth muscle, no glands
- alveolar: no cartilage, no muscle, no glands
- bronchus and bronchiole -> conduction
- alveolar -> respiration
103
Q
bronchi and trachea
A
- have epithelial tissue that contain goblet cells
- goblet cells secrete fluid to resist debris
104
Q
bronchus and bronchiole
A
conduction
105
Q
path of air flow
A
-primary bronchus (one for each lung) -> secondary bronchus (lobar bronchus) -> 3 right and 2 left -> tertiary bronchus (segmental bronchus) -> 10 right and 8-10 left -> bronchiole -> terminal bronchiole (respiratory bronchiole) -> alveolar duct -> alveolus
106
Q
heart is more on left
A
-left lung is smaller
107
Q
bronchogram
A
- shows fluid in bronchi
- inflammation
- airways become visible in x-ray when they are filled with something other than air
108
Q
asthma
A
- in the bronchioles
- in response to stress or environment
- treated with coricosteriods
- diamters reduce in diameter (not nervous system related)
- inflammatory response
- layers that are deep to smooth muscle lining of bronchioles
- submucosa layer increases
- mucousa epithelium increase -> prevents airflow
- albuterol is used during an emergency
109
Q
sympathetic
A
- relaxation of bronchus and bronchioles
- bc these have smooth muscle
- and trachea?
110
Q
parasympathetic
A
- constriction of bronchus and bronchioles
- bc these has smooth muscle
- and trachea?
111
Q
terminal bronchioles
A
- respiratory bronchioles
- end in alveolar clusters
- has smooth muscles
- no cartilage
- parallel to the arterial system
112
Q
alveolus
A
- air is brought into alveoli through the alveolar duct
- but the alveoli are continuous and are also connected to each other
- no cartilage, no muscle, no glands
- surrounded by capillary beds
- 3 cells types
- macrophages are present- phagocytosis of debris
- RBC’s are present
113
Q
alveolar type 1 cells
A
- squamous
- epithelial cell
- allow gas exchange
114
Q
alveolar type 2 cells
A
- septal cell
- produce surfactant (protective fluid) -> moisture on cells so they dont stick
115
Q
gas exchange
A
- alveoli are pressed up against the capillary squamous epithelial cells (endothelial)
- thin basement membranes and cell walls -> allow for gas exchange
116
Q
pneumonia
A
- fluid in lung
- infection
- leukocytes are present bc of infection and fluid
- prevents gas exchange
- treated with antibiotics
117
Q
right lung
A
- 3 lobes
- 3 fissures
- superior, middle and inferior lobes
- oblique fissure- between superior and middle
- horizontal fissure- between middle and inferior
- esophagus, brachiocephalic vein
118
Q
left lung
A
- 2 lobes
- 1 fissure
- oblique fissure
- superior and inferior lobes
- cardiac impression- aorta, cardiac notch, subclavian artery, lingula
119
Q
pleura
A
- surround the lungs
- double layered tissue
- in between the pleura cavity is filled with the pleural fluid
- parietal layer is touching the connective tissue (outer layer)
- visceral pleura are touching the lung tissue itself (inner layer)
- serous membrane
- epithelial (produces the fluid) and connective tissue
- lowers the friction
- maintains surface tension
120
Q
inspiration
A
- diaphragm contracts
- increase vertical volume
- pressure decreases
- air rushes in
- pushes down on abdomen
- nerve impulse
- external intercostals are involved
121
Q
expiration
A
- diaphragm relaxes
- decreases vertical volume
- pressure increases
- air rushes out
- pushes back up into a dome
- passive (no impulse or contraction)
122
Q
forced inhalation
A
- external intercostals
- SCM- sternoclanomastoid
- scalenes
- pectoralis minor
- elevates ribs
- lateral dimension increased
123
Q
forced exhalation
A
- internal intercostals
- abdominal muscles
- ribs depressed
- lateral dimension decreased
- not passive
124
Q
innervation of respiratory system
A
- trachea and respiratory tree- autonomic (symp and parasymp)
- pulmonary arteries- autonomic (symp and parasymp)
- inhalation and exhalation- voluntary muscles (somatic motor) but rhythm is under unconscious control (brainstem)
- unconscious breathing through somatic motor -> unconscious bc it picks up information from
- receive signals from carotid arteries (innervated by glossopharyngeal nerve) -> pick up amount of O2 in blood
- information from lungs
- information from receptors
125
Q
bronchodilation
A
-sympathetic (synapse at paravertebral)
126
Q
bronchoconstriction
A
-parasympathetic (vagus)
127
Q
mechanism of breathing
A
- rhythmic neural stimulation from respiratory centers in brain stem
- respiratory center for inhalation always active (neural stimulation)
- respiratory center for exhalation only active during forceful exhalation (normally passive)
- neural stimulation is absent for passive exhalation
128
Q
respiratory centers
A
respiratory centers in medulla oblongata and pons
129
Q
diaphragm innervation
A
phrenic (C3-C5)
130
Q
regulation of respiratory centers
A
- chemoreceptors of carotid bodies (CN IX)
- aortic bodies (CN X)
- unconscious increase in speed of respiration
- chemoreceptors- detect O2, CO2 levels
- limited voluntary control
131
Q
function of digestive system
A
- ingestion
- digestion- mechanical and chemical
- absorption- vascular capillaries and lacteals (lymphatic capillaries)
- elimination
132
Q
GI tract
A
- oral cavity
- pharynx
- esophagus
- intestines
- where food moves through a single tube
133
Q
accessory organs of digestion
A
- salivary glands
- enzymes that break down food
- teeth
- tongue
- liver- filter and produce fluid for chemical breakdown
- gal bladder- produce fluid for chemical breakdown
- pancreas- produce fluid for chemical breakdown
134
Q
oral cavity
A
- salivary glands
- ingestion and mastication
- enzyme
- part of GI tract
- palate at top
- tongue
- bony alveolus
- vestibule between lips and cheek
- palatoglossal and palatopharyngeal arch -> swallowing
- palatine tonsil
- fauces- opening between the oral cavity and oral pharynx
- uvula
135
Q
oral cavity, pharynx and esophagus
A
swallow
136
Q
stomach
A
digestion
137
Q
small intestine
A
digestion and absorption
138
Q
liver, gallbladder and pancreas
A
-enzymes
139
Q
large intestine
A
absorption and storage
140
Q
mastication
A
- mechanical digestion
- orbicular oris- CN VII
- buccinator- CN VII
- masseter- CN V3
- medial pterygoid- CN V3
- temporalis- CN V3
- lateral pterygoid- lateral depression of jaw -> CN V3
- produces a bolis
141
Q
muscles of tongue
A
- palatoglossus- upward movement- CN X
- genioglossus- CN XII
- hypoglossus- backward and inferiorly- CN XII
- intrinsic muscles- longitudinal and transverse- CN XII
- styloglossus- CN XII
- creates the bolus
- fibers run longitudinal and transverse
142
Q
taste
A
- CN IX- posterior 1/3- glossopharyngeal
- CN VII- anterior 2/3 - facial (chorda tympani)
143
Q
sensation
A
- CN IX- posterior 1/3- glossopharyngeal
- CN V3- anterior 2/3- trigeminal mandibular division
144
Q
teeth
A
- 2 incisor- I1 and I2
- canine- C
- 2 premolars- bicuspids -> P3 and P4
- 3 molars- tricuspids -> M1, M2, M3
- numbered from medial to lateral
145
Q
dentition
A
- crown morphology reflects function but all teeth have the same basic structure
- between root and crown is the neck
- enamel- mineralization
- dentine
- pulp- center of tooth
- cementum- ligaments that bind the teeth to the bone
- canal within the root- vascularizes
146
Q
salivary glands
A
- maintain moisture
- chemical digestion- enzymes
- mucus glands- mucin mixes with water to make mucus
- serous glands- watery fluid with digestive enzymes
- there are 3:
- submandibular gland- serous, mucus, CN VII, 60-70%
- parotid gland- serous, CN IX, 25-30%
- sublingual- serous, mucus, CN VII, 3-5%
147
Q
swallowing
A
- starts in oral cavity
- extrinsic and intrinsic muscles voluntary swallow
- pharyngeal phase- (involuntary) soft palate will automatically rise to prevent bolus from going into nasopharynx, epiglottis moves down and over the opening to the larynx -> bolus enters the esophagus
- esophageal phase- (involuntary) peristaltic contractions push the bolus downward
148
Q
pharnyx
A
- superior, middle, and inferior muscles
- skeletal muscle
- posterior to the oral pharynx
- covered in epithelium and connective tissue
- pharyngeal constrictor muscles constrict wall of pharynx during swallowing
149
Q
esophagus
A
- wave like smooth muscle contractions
- push bolus towards stomach
- long- from neck, behind trachea, through a hiatus in the diaphragm, into the abdomen
- stratified squamous lines the esophageal walls
150
Q
esophageal hiatus
A
-opening in posterior diaphragm that allows esophagus into abdomen
151
Q
cardiac sphincter
A
- thickened ring of circular smooth muscles at inferior end of esophagus
- contracts to make sure stomach fluid doesnt back flow into esophagus
152
Q
cardiac orifice
A
-connection between esophagus and stomach
153
Q
barret esophagus
A
-simple columnar cells
154
Q
simple columnar
A
- found in people with GERD
- gastoesophageal reflux disease
- stomach has simple columnar too
155
Q
components of the digestive system tubes
A
- mucosa: epithelium, lamina propria (connective, muscularis mucosae (muscle)
- muscularis mucosae- increase the SA bc of folds
- submucosa
- muscularis externa: internal circular and external longitudinal
- adventitia or serosa: advenitia (connective) and peritoneum (serous membrane)
156
Q
epithelium of mucosa
A
- stratified squamous epithelium: mouth, oropharynx, larynhopharynx, esophagus, anal canal
- simple columnar: stomach, small and large intestine
157
Q
muscularis externa
A
- usually 2 layers
- internal circular
- external longitudinal
- smooth muscle fibers except for:
- skeletal muscle in oral cavity, oropharynx, laryngopharynx, upper portion esophagus, and external anal sphincter
- innermost oblique layer (unique third muscle layer)- in stomach
158
Q
outermost layer
A
- adventitia (connective tissue)
- serosa (adventitia with epithelial layer -> forms the peritoneum)
- above the diaphragm- adventitia
- below diaphragm: intraperitoneal (all serosa) and retroperitoneal (posterior to peritoneal -> mostly adventita)
159
Q
peritoneum
A
- a serous membrane
- parietal layer (outer)
- peritoneal cavity
- visceral layer (inner)
