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ANP 300 > QUIZ 5 > Flashcards

QUIZ 5 Flashcards

1
Q

visceral efferent: autonomic

A
  • sympathetic

- parasympathetic

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2
Q

somatic vs autonomic: type of control

A
  • somatic- voluntary (conscious)
  • autonomic- involuntary (unconscious)
  • you can control the autonomic by some extent through meditation (raise heart beat)
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3
Q

somatic vs autonomic: type of effector organ that it innervations

A
  • somatic- skeletal muscle

- autonomic (visceral efferent)- smooth, cardiac glandular

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4
Q

somatic vs autonomic: number of neurons from CNS to effector organ

A
  • somatic- only one neuron (myelinated) runs out of the CNS from the spinal cord directly to synapse on the effector organ
  • autonomic- two -> preganglionic (myelinated) and postganglionic (unmyelinated)
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5
Q

parasympathetic

A
  • peripheral portion of a parasympathetic -> preganglionic neuron is longer
  • preganglionic neuron long
  • postganglionic neuron short
  • ganglion closer to target organ (in the wall of the target organ)
  • rest and digest
  • preganglionic secretes ACh
  • postganglionic secrete ACh
  • outflow cranially (4 cranial nerves) and caudal/sacral (S2,S3,S4)
  • preganglionic cell bodies (brainstem or S2-S4 lateral horns)
  • ganglion- terminal ganglia and intramural ganglia
  • pelvic splanchnic nerve
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6
Q

sympathetic

A
  • preganglionic neuron short
  • postganglionic neuron long
  • ganglion closer to CNS
  • fright, flight, fight
  • preganglionic secretes ACh
  • postganglionic secrete norepinephrine
  • outflow from the CNS from the spinal cord (T1-L2)
  • preganglionic cell bodies- T1=L2 (lateral horn)
  • ganglion- paravertebral, prevertebral (celiac, superior mesenteric, inferior mesenteric)
  • sympathetic chain (trunk)
  • sympathetic splanchnic nerve (pass through the sympathetic chain to synapse at the prevertebral ganglion)
  • sympathetic organ nerve
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7
Q

bright light on retina

A
  • picked up by CNS
  • brain nucleus
  • synapse at ciliary ganglion
  • ACh release
  • received by nicitonic receptors
  • pupil contriction
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8
Q

parasympathetic innervation

A

-cranial nerves CNIII ,CN VII, CN IX , CNX and S2-S4

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9
Q

parasympathetic ganglia

A
  • terminal ganglion- ganglion located near the target effector
  • intramural ganglion- ganglion located in the wall of the target organ (pelvic sphlancnic nerves or vagus nerve
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10
Q

cranial terminal ganglion

A
  • ciliary ganglion
  • pterygopalatine ganglion
  • submandibular ganglion
  • otic ganglion
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11
Q

oculomotor nerve CNIII

A
  • parasympathetic
  • terminal ganglion- ciliary ganglion
  • target effectors- ciliary muscle and constrictor pupillae
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12
Q

ciliary mucles

A
  • has parasympathetic innervation starts in midbrain and travels with oculomotor nerve and synapses at ciliary ganglion -> postganglionic fiber travels along V1 fibers and ends at ciliary muscle
  • sympathetic- cell bodies at T1-L2 -> going through ventral root of spinal nerve
  • paravertebral ganglion and up the sympathetic chain
  • superior cervical ganglion organ nerve ciliary muscle
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13
Q

facial nerve CN VII

A

-2/3 branches include parasympathetic
-ganglion- pterygopalatine
-target- lacrimal gland
-chorda tymapni
-

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14
Q

which major foramen does the facial nerve pass through before it splits into 3 distinct branches

A

-internal acoustic meatus

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15
Q

submandibular gland

A
  • parasympathetic- pons -> facial nerve (chorda tympani) -> submandibular ganlgion -> V3 fibers (lingual nerve) -> submandibular gland
  • sympathetic -> T1-L2 -> white ramus -> paravertebral ganglion -> up sympathetic chain -> superior cervical ganglion -> organ nerve -> submandibular gland
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16
Q

glossopharyngeal nerve

A
  • parasympathetic
  • terminal ganglion- otic ganglion
  • target effectors- parotid gland
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17
Q

vagus nerve

A
  • transmits a lot pf parasympathetic (80% of all parasympathetic preganglionic axons are transmitted through the vagus nerve)
  • parasympathetic-
  • preganglionic axons project to intramural ganglia of many organs (heart, tracheobronchial tree, most abdominal organs to splenic flexure)
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18
Q

splenic fixture

A

-between transverse and descending colon on the left side of the body

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19
Q

stomach

A
  • parasympathetic- medulla oblongata -> vagus (abdominal aortic plexus) -> intramural ganglion -> intramural ganglion -> short nerves -> stomach
  • sympathetic- T1-L2 (T5-T9) -> white ramus -> paravertebral ganglion -> splanchnic nerve -> celiac ganglion -> organ nerve -> stomach
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20
Q

collateral abdominal ganglia

A
  • there are 3
  • T5-T9 -> celiac ganglion (stomach, liver, gallbladder, spleen, pancreas, kidney)
  • T9-T12 -> superior mesenteric ganglion (small intestine and first part of large intestine)
  • T12-L2 -> inferior mesenteric ganglion (lateral part of large intestine, rectum, pelvic organs)
  • distribute the postganglionic fibers to the abdominal contents (foregut, midgut, hindgut)
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21
Q

parasympathetic outflow: S2-S4

A
  • sacral outflow- S2-S4
  • pelvic splanchnic nerves come off- 3 (preganglionic travel here)
  • hypogastric plexus- preganglionic nerves merge here)
  • preganglionic axons project/synapse to intramural ganglia of almost all organs inferior to the splenic flexure:
  • descending colon
  • rectum
  • bladder
  • reproductive organs
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22
Q

vagus

A
  • comes out of the skull and descends
  • 80% of parasympathetic innervation
  • thorax and abdomen
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23
Q

bladder

A
  • parasympathetic:
  • S2-S4
  • pelvic splanchnic nerves
  • intramural ganglion
  • short nerves
  • bladder
  • sympathetic:
  • T1-L2 (T10-L2
  • white ramus
  • paravertebral ganglion
  • down sympathetic chain
  • splanchnic nerve
  • inferior mesenteric ganglion
  • postganglionic fiber
  • bladder
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24
Q

S2-S4 (preganglion)

A
  • goes through hypogastric plexus
  • targets lower digestive
  • pelvic (various)
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25
Q

Vagus (CN X): preganglion

A
  • goes through cardiac plexus -> targets heart
  • goes through pulmonary plexus -> tracheobronchial tree
  • goes through esophageal plexus -> esophagus, stomach
  • goes through abdominal aortic plexus -> abdominal (various)
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26
Q

autonomic plexus

A
  • usually include both sympathetic and parasympathetic axons,
  • no neural signaling occurs between these systems though
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27
Q

parasympathetic nervous system function

A
  • rest and relaxation responses
  • energy conservation
  • maintaining resting homeostasis
  • counteracts sympathetic responses
  • always “on”
  • some organs have more parasympathetic and sometimes more sympathetic signaling
  • discrete and localized effects: activation of a single organ -> no mass activation (unlike symp)
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28
Q

examples of parasympathetic effects

A
  • heart: decreased heart rate, weakened contractions, high blood pressure
  • respiratory system: decreased diameter of airways
  • face: pupil constriction, visual accommodation (close vision), increased saliva production
  • digestive: increased smooth muscle motion, increased secretory activity
  • bladder: smooth muscle contraction
  • reproductive organs: erection of penis of clitoris (you feel safe)
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29
Q

visceral afferent

A
  • unlocalized sensation (referred pain)
  • subconscious receptor signaling (ex. CO2 concentration)
  • provokes responses from autonomic responses
  • associated with neurons of most internal organs
  • go back to CNS or reflex arch in CNS to provokes a response
  • pain types:
  • ischemia (lack of O2) -> symp
  • cramping -> symp
  • distension (full tummy or full bladder) -> parasympathetic
  • inflammation -> symp
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30
Q

somatic sensory

A
  • localized sensation
  • conscious perception (usually)
  • associated with sensory neurons of skin, muscles and tendons
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31
Q

visceral afferent pathways

A
  • follows path taken by sympathetic efferent
  • afferent neurons DO NOT synapse in prevertebral or paravertebral ganglia (single peripheral neuron to CNS)
  • afferent neuron cell bodies in posterior root ganglion of spinal nerve
  • peripheral receptor -> CNS
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32
Q

referred pain

A
  • particularly strong visceral sensations are frequently perceived consciously as pain in specific dermatome regions
  • relevant visceral sensory fibers enter the spinal cord at the same level as somatic sensory fibers of that dermatome
  • somatic sensory signal at the same level of spinal cord as visceral sensory signal
  • appendix inflammation -> pain in belly button
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33
Q

visceral afferent pathways

A
  • follows path taken by sympathetic efferent
  • TWO EXCEPTIONS:
  • follow path taken by parasympathetic in
    1. tracheobronchial tree, heart, abdominal viscera -> follows vagus
    1. distension of pelvic organs (bladder, uterus) -> follows pelvic splanchnic nerves
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34
Q

visceral sensory signal resulting from ischemia of the bladder is collateral to which nerve

A
  • sacral splanchnic nerves (sympathetic)
  • distension follows pelvic splanchnic nerves
  • ischemia travels with sacral splanchnic nerves (sympathetic)
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35
Q

labor pain

A
  • visceral afferent
  • cervical distension (cervix dilation) -> follow a parasympathetic pathway -> pelvic splanchnic via S2-S4
  • cramping of uterus (uterine contraction) -> follow a sympathetic pathway T10-L1
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36
Q

visceral afferent function

A

-provoke an autonomic response
-ex. micturition:
-distension of bladder
-visceral afferent signals CNS
-synapse at spinal cord
-parasympathetic
-

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37
Q

sensory receptors are specialized

A
  • only certain kinds of stimulation

- convert stimulation to nerve impulse

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38
Q

general somatic senses

A
  • touch
  • temperature
  • pain
  • proprioception
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39
Q

special somatic senses

A
  • smell (chemoreceptors)
  • taste (chemoreceptors)
  • vision (photoreceptors)
  • hearing (mechanoreceptors)
  • equilibrium (mechanoreceptors)
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40
Q

chemoreceptors

A
  • specific molecules in fluid

- taste, smell

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41
Q

thermoreceptors

A
  • identify changes in temperature
  • free nerve endings- epidermis
  • not all nociceptors are also thermoreceptors
  • same free nerve endings at thermoreceptors in the skin
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42
Q

nociceptors

A
  • pain receptors
  • chemical changes
  • free nerve endings- epidermis
  • not all nociceptors are also thermoreceptors
  • same free nerve endings at thermoreceptors in the skin
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43
Q

mechanoreceptors

A
  • distortion of plasma memberane (various)
  • baroreceptors- blood vessel stretch
  • touch
  • proprioception
  • tactile corpuscule- papillary layer of dermis, discriminative touch (fine touch)
  • lamellated corpuscule- reticular layer of dermis, coarse touch, deep pressure, vibration
  • proprioception in mechanoreceptors is in sensory nerve ending of muscle spindles- detect stretching of the surrounding muscle fibers (change in plasma membrane)
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44
Q

photoreceptors

A
  • light intensity, color, motion

- rods, cones

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45
Q

what kind of sensory receptors are associated with sensing the movement of arm hairs when we put on a shirt in the morning

A

-mechanoreceptors

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46
Q

special senses: smell: chemoreceptors

A
  • CN I
  • olfactory mucosa
  • mucus membrane of olfactory epithelium -> chemoreceptors are here
  • lines superior region of nasal cavity
  • traps and dissolves an odorant
  • stuffy nose -> odorants need to make their way up to the mucus membrane
  • olfactory receptors- cells stimulated by odorants
  • modified bipolar neurons
  • each bind to a small number of odorants
  • humans can perceive 1000s of odorants
  • supporting cell- sustain and support receptor cells
  • basal cells- cell population that continuously replace receptor cells (receptors are damaged by chemicals)
  • bipolar neurons transmit signal (after binding to olfactins) through the cribriform plate to the olfactory bulb
  • olfactory bulb- synapse of CN1 with interneurons, enlargement of olfactory tract (cell bodies)
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47
Q

why does sniffing help us to perceive smells more strongly

A
  • brings more odorant to the olfactory mucosa

- increases air pressure and turbulence -> allows larger odorants to come to the olfactory mucosa

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48
Q

special senses: taste: chemoreceptors

A
  • paillae- tissue elevations of the tongue composed of epithelium and connective tissue (there are 4 on tongue)
  • filiform papilla- pointy, move food around by friction, bumps
  • fungiform papilla- within this papillae there are taste buds, rounded
  • vallate papilla- most taste buds on the side walls of this papilla are here, V shape, back of tongue
  • foliate papilla- childhood taste buds are in here
  • taste buds- containing gustatory receptors (chemoreceptors) are distributed within fungiform and vallate papillae of adults
  • bind to chemicals
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49
Q

tastebuds

A
  • gustatory cells- cells stimulated by tastants in our saliva
  • supporting cells- sustain and support gustatory cells
  • basal cells- cell population that continuously replaces short lived gustatory cells
  • inside the papillae
50
Q

gustatory discrimination

A
  • taste receptors are chemoreceptors for various compounds dissolved within salvia
  • different chemoreceptors for each:
  • sweet- organic compounds
  • salt- metal ions
  • sour- acids
  • bitter- alkaloids
  • umami amino acids
51
Q

innervation of the tongue

A
  • muscles: intrinsic, genioglossus, hypoglossus, styloglossus, palatoglossus
  • motor innervation- vagus to palatoglossus, hypoglossal to others
  • somatic sensory innervation- trigeminal (mandibular V3), glossopharyngeal
  • special sensory innervation (taste)- facial (chorda tympani) and glossopharyngeal
  • posterior 1/3- glossopharyngeal (somatic sensory and taste)
  • anterior 2/3- facial (chorda tympani) -> taste, trigeminal V3 (somatic sensory)
  • epiglottis- has some special sensory taste (gustatory receptors) from vagus innervation
52
Q

special senses: vision: photoreceptors

A
  • fibrous layer- dense fibrous connective tissue
  • white fibrous tissue surrounds most of the eye- sclera
  • clear structure- allows light to pass through eye
  • ciliary body- accommodation reflex (shape of lens) -> vascular tunic
  • iris- pupil dilation and constriction (vascular tunic)
  • neural tunic- retina, photoreceptors are here
  • fibrous -outer layer : sclera and cornea
  • vascular tunic- middle layer: iris, ciliary body, choroid
  • neural tunic- inner layer: retina (photoreceptors and neurons)
53
Q

muscles in eye

A
  • iris
  • dilator pupilae muslces travel radial from center to edge of pupil
  • contraction of dilator pupillae muscles pull from center outward -> open the pupil
  • constrictor pupillae- constriction inwards -> constricts pupillae -> closes pupil
  • ciliary muscles- relaxed -> elongated -> suspensory ligaments have tension -> lens is flatter; contraction of ciliary muscle -> goes from elongated to rounded state -> less tension of suspensory ligaments
54
Q

lens

A
  • part of the outer fibrous layer
  • made of dead cells
  • cells filled with crystallin (clear)
  • shape of lens determines degree of light refraction -> determines focal length
  • bending lights to it hits the retina properly
  • suspensory ligaments and ciliary muscles help determine shape of lens
  • distance- sympathetic signal (superior, cervical ganglion) -> ciliary muscles are relaxed -> suspensory ligaments taut -> flattens lens
  • near- (accommodation reflex) -> parasympathetic signal by oculomotor nerve -> ciliary muscles contract -> suspensory ligament relaxed (no tension) -> you can see near
55
Q

accommodation reflex

A
  • rounding of the lens for near focus
  • parasympathetic signal by oculomotor nerve
  • ciliary muscles contract -> suspensory ligaments are not taut anymore (relaxed) -> rounder shape -> near sight
56
Q

pupil/irisu

A
  • aperture size determines amount of light that is refracted
  • low light -> dilator pupillae contracts -> sympathetic autonomic signal (superior cervical ganglion) -> contraction of dilator pupillae -> pupil dilates
  • bright light -> sphincter pupillae contracts -> parasympathetic (oculomotor) signal -> pupil constricts
57
Q

lens: cataracts

A
  • region of opacity within the lens that may eventually obscure entire field of vision
  • blurry vision due to opacity
  • difficulty with colors
  • reduced focus
  • random refraction of light
  • risk factors: old age, diabetes, intraocular infection, UV light exposure
58
Q

lens- presbyopia

A
  • inability to focus on near objects
  • related to inflexibility of lens
  • age related
  • lens no longer bends or returns to its round shape as easily as it once did
  • accommodation reflex -> tension/contraction in ciliary muscle -> suspensory ligament relaxed (no tension) -> bend light correctly for near locations
  • if there is an issue with this you will need glasses
59
Q

choroid

A
  • most of vascular tunic (thick)
  • nutrient supply for retinal layer
  • absorbs extra light (so it doesnt hit photoreceptors twice)
  • arteries and veins in the choroid layer
60
Q

retina

A
  • pigmented layer: transport of nutrients and absorbing extra light
  • neural layer: photoreceptors and neurons
61
Q

bipolar neurons

A
  • transmits from photoreceptors to ganglion

- passes through ganglion layer to photoreceptor layer to rods and cones

62
Q

nocturnal animals

A
  • eyes glow when you shine a light on them
  • due to extra layer between retina and choroid
  • instead of absorbing it reflects the light
  • this layer is called the tapetum lucidum
  • less light entering the eye (fewer photon) -> 2 shots to absorb light -> on the way in and way out
  • lose some focal acuity on the way out tho (tradeoff)
63
Q

retina

A
  • photoreceptors
  • 125 million rods: black and white
  • 7 million cones: color
  • different types of cones that are more sensitive to certain colors
64
Q

optic disc

A
  • part of retina
  • few photoreceptors
  • vascularized
  • dominated by neurons and blood vessels
65
Q

macula lutea

A
  • part of retina
  • darkened area lateral to optic disc
  • in the portion of the retina that receives a focus of light
  • has high cone concentration in the center (fovea centralis)
  • center of visual field
66
Q

fovea centralis

A
  • has high cone concentration

- pit in its center on the macula lutea

67
Q

what impact would the destruction of the macula lutea have

A
  • loss of some color vision

- center of visual field lost

68
Q

retina: macular degeneration

A
  • degeneration of the macula lutea
  • typically occurs in older people
  • loss of photoreceptors
  • and thinning of pigmented layer
  • eventual vision loss in the center of the visual field and diminished color perception (fovea centralis cone concentraion)
69
Q

innervation of eye

A
  • ganglion -> bipolar neurons -> optic nerves -> brain ->

- visual field of left eye goes to visual cortex on right side of cerebrum

70
Q

lacrimal apparatus

A
  • lacrimal gland- superior, lateral to eye, produces tears
  • lacrimal puncta- tears move through here, transmit tears into nasal cavity ->
  • nasolacrimal duct ->
  • inferior nasal concha
  • parasympathetic innervation of lacrimal gland from facial VII
  • greater petrosal branch -> hiatus of facial canal -> foramen lacerum -> pterygopalatine ganglion -> parasympathetic to lacrimal gland
71
Q

extrinsic muscles of eye

A
  • levator palpebrae superioris (oculomotor nerve) -> dilator of eyelid
  • attaches to upper eyelid
  • opens eye
  • sphincter of eyelids- orbicularis oculi -> facial nerve
  • palpebral (gentle close) and orbital (tight close) portion
  • closing of eye
72
Q

extrinsic muscles that move the eye

A
  • superior oblique (trochlear)
  • lateral rectus (abducens)
  • inferior oblique (oculomotor)
  • superior rectus (oculomotor)
  • medial rectus (oculomotor)
  • inferior rectus (oculomotor)
73
Q

adduction of eye

A
  • looking at nose
  • medial rectus
  • pulls on medial side of front of eyeball
  • inferior rectus
  • superior rectus
74
Q

abduction of eye

A
  • looking towards ear
  • lateral rectus
  • pulls on lateral side of front of eyeball
  • superior oblique- pulls from back of eye on the superior lateral side
  • inferior oblique- pulls from back of the eye inferiorly laterally
75
Q

elevation of eye

A
  • looking up
  • superior rectus
  • inferior oblique- pulls from back of the eye inferiorly
76
Q

depression of eye

A
  • looking down
  • inferior rectus
  • superior oblique- pulls from back of eye on the superior lateral side
77
Q

orbital vs. optic axis

A
  • orbit of the eye
  • optic plane is directly forward
  • the muscles comes from the back of the orbit
  • the orbit is angled from medial to lateral
  • explains why superior and inferior recti are adductors of the pupil (bc they are coming at an angle)
78
Q

starting with the pupil facing straight forward, what would the motion of the eye be if both superior rectus and inferior oblique contracted at the same time

A
  • superior rectus- adduction and elevation
  • inferior oblique- elevation and abduction
  • adduction and abduction cancel out
79
Q

somatic sensation of the eyeball

A
  • somatic sensory

- trigeminal nerve: ophthalmic division (V1)

80
Q

hearing

A
  • transfer of mechanical vibrations
  • auricle -> cochlea
  • auricle- fleshy cartilaginous structure surrounding outer ear
  • cochlea- has the mechanoreceptors
  • middle ear- ear ossicles
  • inner ear- cochlea
81
Q

outer ear

A
  • lobe
  • helix
  • antihelix
  • antitragus
  • concha
  • tragus
82
Q

pathway of hearing

A

external ear -> external auditory meatus -> tympanic cavity (eardrum) -> auditory (eustachian) tube -
>

83
Q

tympanic cavity

A
  • ear drum
  • tympanic membrane: taught membrane
  • vibrates based on speed and intensity
  • middle ear
84
Q

auditory (eustachian) tube

A
  • connects middle ear to nasopharynx

- corrects pressure within middle ear

85
Q

auditory ossicles

A
  • malleus- hammer
  • incus- envil
  • stapes- stirrup
  • vibrations pass from tympanic membrane -> malleus -> incus -> stapes -> oval window in petrous bone (temporal) -> inner ear
  • tensor tympani- from nasopharynx to malleus (innervation by trigeminal (V3)
  • stapedius- form tympanic cavity to stapes (innervation by facial nerve)
  • contraction of these muscles during loud noise to protect auditory ossicles
86
Q

inner ear

A
  • oval window -> inner ear
  • transmitted through fluids in the inner ear
  • go to the cochlea
  • pick up wavelength and intensity
  • mechanoreceptors in cochlea
  • cochlear branch -> vestibulocochlear nerve (special sense of hearing and equilibrium)
87
Q

middle ear

A
  • auditory tube

- ear ossicles

88
Q

equilibrium

A
  • proprioception
  • mechanoreceptors
  • inner ear
  • semicircular canals
  • vestibule
89
Q

semicircular canals

A
  • within temporal bone
  • closely related to the cochlea
  • equilibrium
  • sensation are picked up mechanoreceptors in the semicircular canals of vestibule -> vestibulocochlear nerve
  • bony labyrinth- contains soft tissue structures
  • membranous labyrinths- lines the bony labyrinth
  • the soft tissues includes equilibrium structures: vestibule, cochlea, semicircular canals
90
Q

membranous labyrinth

A
  • surrounds:
  • saccule and utricle
  • cochlear duct
  • semicircular ducts
  • contains the fluids
  • cochlea has 3 fluid filled spaces
91
Q

perilymph

A
  • within the membranous labyrinth
  • external to the organs of hearing and sensation
  • within the vestibule- picks up vibrations and sends to cochlea, semicircular canals
92
Q

endolymph

A
  • within the hearing and sensation organs

- within cochlea duct, semicircular ducts, utricle, saccule

93
Q

vestibular apparatus

A
  • within the vestibule
  • associated with balance
  • macula- hairs
  • hairs are the mechanorecpeotrs associated with balance
  • statoconic membrane-otolithic layer- gelatinous fluid attached to hairs
  • vestibular neurons
  • when macula changes orientation due to movement of head -> sensed
  • when upright -> hairs are up
  • when looking down -> hairs are pushed down
  • head tilt
94
Q

cochlea

A
  • hearing only (not equilibrium

- cochlear branch

95
Q

given that the macula within the inner ear vestibule function to detect linear motion of the head, what cranial nerve transmit signals from the maculae to the brain

A

-vestibular branch of CN VIII

96
Q

rotational movement

A
  • semicircular ducts
  • fluid passes through ducts
  • fluid will move more quickly when we rotate parallel to the duct
  • flows through the ampulae at the ends of the duct
  • one ampulae per duct
  • within the ampulae there is a cupula -> surrounds many hairs
  • ampulla
  • as fluid flows past the cupula the cupula is pushed and therefore the hairs -> increase in nerve impulse
  • tells us the axis of rotation
  • fluid- endolymph
97
Q

semicircular canal orientation

A
  • posterior semicircular canal- coronal plane -> tilt head form side to side
  • anterior semicircular canal- sagittal plane -> nod head yes
  • lateral semicircular canal- horizontal plane -> shake head no
  • complex rotations can be in different canals
98
Q

macula

A
  • mechanoreceptor hairs
  • vestibular nerve branches
  • hairs move with gravity
  • increases and decreases neurotransmitters
99
Q

ampulla

A
  • fluid flows faster in one semicircular duct than another
  • direction of rotation in space
  • detects head motion
  • vestibular branch
100
Q

stapes

A

-at the oval window

101
Q

cochlea

A
  • internal space is filled with perilymph
  • external auditory canal -> tympanic membrane -> vestibule -> scala vestibuli -> scala tympani -> round window
  • scala vestibuli is a part of the cochlea
  • scala media- cochlear duct
  • strength of wave -> intensity
  • wavelength will also only go for certain distance as well
102
Q

which structures within the cochlea are filled with endolymph

A
  • cochlear duct

- scala tympani and scala vestibuli do NOT -> they have perilymph

103
Q

tinitis

A
  • damage to hair cells
  • damage to mechanoreceptors
  • injuries to nervous system within the cranial nerve
104
Q

pathway of equilibrium

A

-external auditory canal -> tympanic membrane -> ear ossicles -> window -> scala vestibuli -> cochlear duct -> hairs move within basil membrane -> vibrations -> scala tympani -> round window -> middle ear

105
Q

endocrine system

A
  • communication system
  • maintain homeostasis
  • signals coming from CNS -> transmitted by other glands
  • modify organ function or development
  • excrete hormones into extracellular space and picked up in blood to pass through whole body -> some cells have the receptors and some dont
  • slower signal
  • no duct
  • neural communication- chemical communication, specific
106
Q

central endocrine system

A
  • hypothalamus
  • pituitary (2 parts)
  • pineal gland
107
Q

peripheral endocrine system

A
  • thyroid gland
  • parathyroid glands
  • pancreas
  • adrenal glands (2 parts)
  • gonads
108
Q

hypothalamus

A
  • inferior on the diencephalon
  • different nuclei that excrete different factors
  • infundibulum connects the hypothalamus to the pituitary
  • neurohypophysis- posterior
  • adenohypophysis- anterior
109
Q

pituitary

A
  • recieves signals from the hypothalamus
  • neurohypophysis-neural tissue (posterior)
  • paraventricular nucleus -> oxytocin -> bonding, lactation, late pregnancy
  • supraoptic nucleus -> antidiuretic -> high salt ->
  • adenohypophysis- glandular tissue (anterior)
  • hormones are stored in neurohypophysis (posterior) from the hypothalamus and produced in adenohypophysis (anterior)
110
Q

hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system

A
  • two capillary beds that are directly connected to each other -> allows for hormones to go from hypothalamus to the anterior adenohypophysis directly (potent)
  • adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary)
  • 2 parts: primary capillary plexus (receives hormones from pituitary) and secondary capillary plexus
  • GHRH- growth hormone releasing hormone- cause the glandular tissue in adenohypophysis to produce GH -> long bone growth
  • GH hormone
111
Q

adenohypophysis hormones

A
  • growth hormone (GH)
  • adrenocorticotropic (ACTH) -> cortical layer of adrenal gland
  • follicle stimulating (FH) -> gonads
  • luteinizing (LH) -> gonads
  • thyroid stimulating (TSH) -> thyroid
  • hormone is produced here
  • releases hormones that cause production of other hormones
112
Q

neurohypophysis hormones

A
  • antidiuretic (vasopressin)
  • oxytocin
  • hormone is produced in the hypothalamus and passed to neurohypophysis
113
Q

pineal gland

A
  • central
  • found in diencephalon
  • epithalamus
  • produces melatonin (circadian)
  • increase and decrease depending on light and time
  • based on circadian rhythm
  • problems are related to seasonal…
114
Q

thyroid gland

A
  • peripheral
  • inferior/surrounding to trachea
  • receive blood from external carotid and superior thyroid artery
  • receives thyroid stimulating hormone through the arteries
  • blood stream also carries high level of serum calcium -> produces calcitonin
  • calcitonin reduces the level serum calcium -> increase activity of osteoblasts
  • calcitonin (and all other hormones produced) is released into venous system -> superior thyroid -> jugular -> brachiocephalic -> vena cava
115
Q

release of calcitonin serves to reduce the level serum calcium through various mechanisms. you also know that bone is a major reservoir of calcium -> given this knowledge, what type of bone cell activity is upregulated by calcitonin

A

-osteoblast

116
Q

parathyroid

A
  • peripheral
  • produce an opposite effect to thyroid
  • posterior side of thyroid
  • 4 glandular structures
  • if there is low amount of serum calcium -> parathyroid hormone -> osteoclasts are activated (resorption of blood)
  • lactation
117
Q

pancreas

A
  • peripheral
  • elongated
  • between spleen and duodenum
  • in combination with the liver produces bile (exocrine secretion)
  • produce digestive enzymes
  • exocrine glands- produce a substance that is released in a duct
  • also an endocrine organ
  • produces insulin (endocrine) -> breaks down glucose in blood
  • lack of insulin -> type 1 diabetes
118
Q

adrenal glands

A
  • 2 layers: cortex (outer) and adrenal medulla (inner)
  • superior to kidneys
  • cortex- produces corticoids (long term stress)
  • adrenal medulla- produces epinephrine and norepinephrine (short term stress)
  • high vascularized -> very quick signaling
  • stress response
119
Q

stress response: fast

A
  • the fast arm (within seconds)- activation of the sympathetic nervous system
  • sympathetic nervous system signal -> adrenal medulla produces epinephrine (adrenalin), norepinephrine
  • very fast
  • fight or flight
120
Q

stress response: long term

A
  • hypothalamus releases the CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone
  • portal system
  • makes the anterior pituitary to release the ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)
  • causes the adrenal cortex to produce glucocorticoids
  • slow arm (within minutes)- activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
  • hormones are passing through blood vessels along a long path
121
Q

stress response effects

A

stress causes:

  • reproduction (suppresses)
  • growth (suppresses)
  • digestion (suppresses)
  • cardiovascular tone (enhances)
  • glucose breakdown (enhances)
  • glucose storage (suppresses)
  • immune system (immediately enhances, then suppresses)
122
Q

gonads

A
  • peripheral
  • leydigs cells in the testes of males produce androgens (testosterone) -> increase sperm, development of male organs
  • follicle stimulating hormone from the
  • estrogens -> maturation of female gametes and gonads -> produced in the walls
  • progesterone is from the primary corpus luteum -> produces by gonads -> maintains menstrual cycle

ANP 300 (20 decks)

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