QUIZ 5 Flashcards
1
Q
visceral efferent: autonomic
A
- sympathetic
- parasympathetic
2
Q
somatic vs autonomic: type of control
A
- somatic- voluntary (conscious)
- autonomic- involuntary (unconscious)
- you can control the autonomic by some extent through meditation (raise heart beat)
3
Q
somatic vs autonomic: type of effector organ that it innervations
A
- somatic- skeletal muscle
- autonomic (visceral efferent)- smooth, cardiac glandular
4
Q
somatic vs autonomic: number of neurons from CNS to effector organ
A
- somatic- only one neuron (myelinated) runs out of the CNS from the spinal cord directly to synapse on the effector organ
- autonomic- two -> preganglionic (myelinated) and postganglionic (unmyelinated)
5
Q
parasympathetic
A
- peripheral portion of a parasympathetic -> preganglionic neuron is longer
- preganglionic neuron long
- postganglionic neuron short
- ganglion closer to target organ (in the wall of the target organ)
- rest and digest
- preganglionic secretes ACh
- postganglionic secrete ACh
- outflow cranially (4 cranial nerves) and caudal/sacral (S2,S3,S4)
- preganglionic cell bodies (brainstem or S2-S4 lateral horns)
- ganglion- terminal ganglia and intramural ganglia
- pelvic splanchnic nerve
6
Q
sympathetic
A
- preganglionic neuron short
- postganglionic neuron long
- ganglion closer to CNS
- fright, flight, fight
- preganglionic secretes ACh
- postganglionic secrete norepinephrine
- outflow from the CNS from the spinal cord (T1-L2)
- preganglionic cell bodies- T1=L2 (lateral horn)
- ganglion- paravertebral, prevertebral (celiac, superior mesenteric, inferior mesenteric)
- sympathetic chain (trunk)
- sympathetic splanchnic nerve (pass through the sympathetic chain to synapse at the prevertebral ganglion)
- sympathetic organ nerve
7
Q
bright light on retina
A
- picked up by CNS
- brain nucleus
- synapse at ciliary ganglion
- ACh release
- received by nicitonic receptors
- pupil contriction
8
Q
parasympathetic innervation
A
-cranial nerves CNIII ,CN VII, CN IX , CNX and S2-S4
9
Q
parasympathetic ganglia
A
- terminal ganglion- ganglion located near the target effector
- intramural ganglion- ganglion located in the wall of the target organ (pelvic sphlancnic nerves or vagus nerve
10
Q
cranial terminal ganglion
A
- ciliary ganglion
- pterygopalatine ganglion
- submandibular ganglion
- otic ganglion
11
Q
oculomotor nerve CNIII
A
- parasympathetic
- terminal ganglion- ciliary ganglion
- target effectors- ciliary muscle and constrictor pupillae
12
Q
ciliary mucles
A
- has parasympathetic innervation starts in midbrain and travels with oculomotor nerve and synapses at ciliary ganglion -> postganglionic fiber travels along V1 fibers and ends at ciliary muscle
- sympathetic- cell bodies at T1-L2 -> going through ventral root of spinal nerve
- paravertebral ganglion and up the sympathetic chain
- superior cervical ganglion organ nerve ciliary muscle
13
Q
facial nerve CN VII
A
-2/3 branches include parasympathetic
-ganglion- pterygopalatine
-target- lacrimal gland
-chorda tymapni
-
14
Q
which major foramen does the facial nerve pass through before it splits into 3 distinct branches
A
-internal acoustic meatus
15
Q
submandibular gland
A
- parasympathetic- pons -> facial nerve (chorda tympani) -> submandibular ganlgion -> V3 fibers (lingual nerve) -> submandibular gland
- sympathetic -> T1-L2 -> white ramus -> paravertebral ganglion -> up sympathetic chain -> superior cervical ganglion -> organ nerve -> submandibular gland
16
Q
glossopharyngeal nerve
A
- parasympathetic
- terminal ganglion- otic ganglion
- target effectors- parotid gland
17
Q
vagus nerve
A
- transmits a lot pf parasympathetic (80% of all parasympathetic preganglionic axons are transmitted through the vagus nerve)
- parasympathetic-
- preganglionic axons project to intramural ganglia of many organs (heart, tracheobronchial tree, most abdominal organs to splenic flexure)
18
Q
splenic fixture
A
-between transverse and descending colon on the left side of the body
19
Q
stomach
A
- parasympathetic- medulla oblongata -> vagus (abdominal aortic plexus) -> intramural ganglion -> intramural ganglion -> short nerves -> stomach
- sympathetic- T1-L2 (T5-T9) -> white ramus -> paravertebral ganglion -> splanchnic nerve -> celiac ganglion -> organ nerve -> stomach
20
Q
collateral abdominal ganglia
A
- there are 3
- T5-T9 -> celiac ganglion (stomach, liver, gallbladder, spleen, pancreas, kidney)
- T9-T12 -> superior mesenteric ganglion (small intestine and first part of large intestine)
- T12-L2 -> inferior mesenteric ganglion (lateral part of large intestine, rectum, pelvic organs)
- distribute the postganglionic fibers to the abdominal contents (foregut, midgut, hindgut)
21
Q
parasympathetic outflow: S2-S4
A
- sacral outflow- S2-S4
- pelvic splanchnic nerves come off- 3 (preganglionic travel here)
- hypogastric plexus- preganglionic nerves merge here)
- preganglionic axons project/synapse to intramural ganglia of almost all organs inferior to the splenic flexure:
- descending colon
- rectum
- bladder
- reproductive organs
22
Q
vagus
A
- comes out of the skull and descends
- 80% of parasympathetic innervation
- thorax and abdomen
23
Q
bladder
A
- parasympathetic:
- S2-S4
- pelvic splanchnic nerves
- intramural ganglion
- short nerves
- bladder
- sympathetic:
- T1-L2 (T10-L2
- white ramus
- paravertebral ganglion
- down sympathetic chain
- splanchnic nerve
- inferior mesenteric ganglion
- postganglionic fiber
- bladder
24
Q
S2-S4 (preganglion)
A
- goes through hypogastric plexus
- targets lower digestive
- pelvic (various)
25
Q
Vagus (CN X): preganglion
A
- goes through cardiac plexus -> targets heart
- goes through pulmonary plexus -> tracheobronchial tree
- goes through esophageal plexus -> esophagus, stomach
- goes through abdominal aortic plexus -> abdominal (various)
26
Q
autonomic plexus
A
- usually include both sympathetic and parasympathetic axons,
- no neural signaling occurs between these systems though
27
Q
parasympathetic nervous system function
A
- rest and relaxation responses
- energy conservation
- maintaining resting homeostasis
- counteracts sympathetic responses
- always “on”
- some organs have more parasympathetic and sometimes more sympathetic signaling
- discrete and localized effects: activation of a single organ -> no mass activation (unlike symp)
28
Q
examples of parasympathetic effects
A
- heart: decreased heart rate, weakened contractions, high blood pressure
- respiratory system: decreased diameter of airways
- face: pupil constriction, visual accommodation (close vision), increased saliva production
- digestive: increased smooth muscle motion, increased secretory activity
- bladder: smooth muscle contraction
- reproductive organs: erection of penis of clitoris (you feel safe)
29
Q
visceral afferent
A
- unlocalized sensation (referred pain)
- subconscious receptor signaling (ex. CO2 concentration)
- provokes responses from autonomic responses
- associated with neurons of most internal organs
- go back to CNS or reflex arch in CNS to provokes a response
- pain types:
- ischemia (lack of O2) -> symp
- cramping -> symp
- distension (full tummy or full bladder) -> parasympathetic
- inflammation -> symp
30
Q
somatic sensory
A
- localized sensation
- conscious perception (usually)
- associated with sensory neurons of skin, muscles and tendons
31
Q
visceral afferent pathways
A
- follows path taken by sympathetic efferent
- afferent neurons DO NOT synapse in prevertebral or paravertebral ganglia (single peripheral neuron to CNS)
- afferent neuron cell bodies in posterior root ganglion of spinal nerve
- peripheral receptor -> CNS
32
Q
referred pain
A
- particularly strong visceral sensations are frequently perceived consciously as pain in specific dermatome regions
- relevant visceral sensory fibers enter the spinal cord at the same level as somatic sensory fibers of that dermatome
- somatic sensory signal at the same level of spinal cord as visceral sensory signal
- appendix inflammation -> pain in belly button
33
Q
visceral afferent pathways
A
- follows path taken by sympathetic efferent
- TWO EXCEPTIONS:
- follow path taken by parasympathetic in
1. tracheobronchial tree, heart, abdominal viscera -> follows vagus - distension of pelvic organs (bladder, uterus) -> follows pelvic splanchnic nerves
34
Q
visceral sensory signal resulting from ischemia of the bladder is collateral to which nerve
A
- sacral splanchnic nerves (sympathetic)
- distension follows pelvic splanchnic nerves
- ischemia travels with sacral splanchnic nerves (sympathetic)
35
Q
labor pain
A
- visceral afferent
- cervical distension (cervix dilation) -> follow a parasympathetic pathway -> pelvic splanchnic via S2-S4
- cramping of uterus (uterine contraction) -> follow a sympathetic pathway T10-L1
36
Q
visceral afferent function
A
-provoke an autonomic response
-ex. micturition:
-distension of bladder
-visceral afferent signals CNS
-synapse at spinal cord
-parasympathetic
-
37
Q
sensory receptors are specialized
A
- only certain kinds of stimulation
- convert stimulation to nerve impulse
38
Q
general somatic senses
A
- touch
- temperature
- pain
- proprioception
39
Q
special somatic senses
A
- smell (chemoreceptors)
- taste (chemoreceptors)
- vision (photoreceptors)
- hearing (mechanoreceptors)
- equilibrium (mechanoreceptors)
40
Q
chemoreceptors
A
- specific molecules in fluid
- taste, smell
41
Q
thermoreceptors
A
- identify changes in temperature
- free nerve endings- epidermis
- not all nociceptors are also thermoreceptors
- same free nerve endings at thermoreceptors in the skin
42
Q
nociceptors
A
- pain receptors
- chemical changes
- free nerve endings- epidermis
- not all nociceptors are also thermoreceptors
- same free nerve endings at thermoreceptors in the skin
43
Q
mechanoreceptors
A
- distortion of plasma memberane (various)
- baroreceptors- blood vessel stretch
- touch
- proprioception
- tactile corpuscule- papillary layer of dermis, discriminative touch (fine touch)
- lamellated corpuscule- reticular layer of dermis, coarse touch, deep pressure, vibration
- proprioception in mechanoreceptors is in sensory nerve ending of muscle spindles- detect stretching of the surrounding muscle fibers (change in plasma membrane)
44
Q
photoreceptors
A
- light intensity, color, motion
- rods, cones
45
Q
what kind of sensory receptors are associated with sensing the movement of arm hairs when we put on a shirt in the morning
A
-mechanoreceptors
46
Q
special senses: smell: chemoreceptors
A
- CN I
- olfactory mucosa
- mucus membrane of olfactory epithelium -> chemoreceptors are here
- lines superior region of nasal cavity
- traps and dissolves an odorant
- stuffy nose -> odorants need to make their way up to the mucus membrane
- olfactory receptors- cells stimulated by odorants
- modified bipolar neurons
- each bind to a small number of odorants
- humans can perceive 1000s of odorants
- supporting cell- sustain and support receptor cells
- basal cells- cell population that continuously replace receptor cells (receptors are damaged by chemicals)
- bipolar neurons transmit signal (after binding to olfactins) through the cribriform plate to the olfactory bulb
- olfactory bulb- synapse of CN1 with interneurons, enlargement of olfactory tract (cell bodies)
47
Q
why does sniffing help us to perceive smells more strongly
A
- brings more odorant to the olfactory mucosa
- increases air pressure and turbulence -> allows larger odorants to come to the olfactory mucosa
48
Q
special senses: taste: chemoreceptors
A
- paillae- tissue elevations of the tongue composed of epithelium and connective tissue (there are 4 on tongue)
- filiform papilla- pointy, move food around by friction, bumps
- fungiform papilla- within this papillae there are taste buds, rounded
- vallate papilla- most taste buds on the side walls of this papilla are here, V shape, back of tongue
- foliate papilla- childhood taste buds are in here
- taste buds- containing gustatory receptors (chemoreceptors) are distributed within fungiform and vallate papillae of adults
- bind to chemicals
49
Q
tastebuds
A
- gustatory cells- cells stimulated by tastants in our saliva
- supporting cells- sustain and support gustatory cells
- basal cells- cell population that continuously replaces short lived gustatory cells
- inside the papillae
50
Q
gustatory discrimination
A
- taste receptors are chemoreceptors for various compounds dissolved within salvia
- different chemoreceptors for each:
- sweet- organic compounds
- salt- metal ions
- sour- acids
- bitter- alkaloids
- umami amino acids
51
Q
innervation of the tongue
A
- muscles: intrinsic, genioglossus, hypoglossus, styloglossus, palatoglossus
- motor innervation- vagus to palatoglossus, hypoglossal to others
- somatic sensory innervation- trigeminal (mandibular V3), glossopharyngeal
- special sensory innervation (taste)- facial (chorda tympani) and glossopharyngeal
- posterior 1/3- glossopharyngeal (somatic sensory and taste)
- anterior 2/3- facial (chorda tympani) -> taste, trigeminal V3 (somatic sensory)
- epiglottis- has some special sensory taste (gustatory receptors) from vagus innervation
52
Q
special senses: vision: photoreceptors
A
- fibrous layer- dense fibrous connective tissue
- white fibrous tissue surrounds most of the eye- sclera
- clear structure- allows light to pass through eye
- ciliary body- accommodation reflex (shape of lens) -> vascular tunic
- iris- pupil dilation and constriction (vascular tunic)
- neural tunic- retina, photoreceptors are here
- fibrous -outer layer : sclera and cornea
- vascular tunic- middle layer: iris, ciliary body, choroid
- neural tunic- inner layer: retina (photoreceptors and neurons)
53
Q
muscles in eye
A
- iris
- dilator pupilae muslces travel radial from center to edge of pupil
- contraction of dilator pupillae muscles pull from center outward -> open the pupil
- constrictor pupillae- constriction inwards -> constricts pupillae -> closes pupil
- ciliary muscles- relaxed -> elongated -> suspensory ligaments have tension -> lens is flatter; contraction of ciliary muscle -> goes from elongated to rounded state -> less tension of suspensory ligaments
54
Q
lens
A
- part of the outer fibrous layer
- made of dead cells
- cells filled with crystallin (clear)
- shape of lens determines degree of light refraction -> determines focal length
- bending lights to it hits the retina properly
- suspensory ligaments and ciliary muscles help determine shape of lens
- distance- sympathetic signal (superior, cervical ganglion) -> ciliary muscles are relaxed -> suspensory ligaments taut -> flattens lens
- near- (accommodation reflex) -> parasympathetic signal by oculomotor nerve -> ciliary muscles contract -> suspensory ligament relaxed (no tension) -> you can see near
55
Q
accommodation reflex
A
- rounding of the lens for near focus
- parasympathetic signal by oculomotor nerve
- ciliary muscles contract -> suspensory ligaments are not taut anymore (relaxed) -> rounder shape -> near sight
56
Q
pupil/irisu
A
- aperture size determines amount of light that is refracted
- low light -> dilator pupillae contracts -> sympathetic autonomic signal (superior cervical ganglion) -> contraction of dilator pupillae -> pupil dilates
- bright light -> sphincter pupillae contracts -> parasympathetic (oculomotor) signal -> pupil constricts
57
Q
lens: cataracts
A
- region of opacity within the lens that may eventually obscure entire field of vision
- blurry vision due to opacity
- difficulty with colors
- reduced focus
- random refraction of light
- risk factors: old age, diabetes, intraocular infection, UV light exposure
58
Q
lens- presbyopia
A
- inability to focus on near objects
- related to inflexibility of lens
- age related
- lens no longer bends or returns to its round shape as easily as it once did
- accommodation reflex -> tension/contraction in ciliary muscle -> suspensory ligament relaxed (no tension) -> bend light correctly for near locations
- if there is an issue with this you will need glasses
59
Q
choroid
A
- most of vascular tunic (thick)
- nutrient supply for retinal layer
- absorbs extra light (so it doesnt hit photoreceptors twice)
- arteries and veins in the choroid layer
60
Q
retina
A
- pigmented layer: transport of nutrients and absorbing extra light
- neural layer: photoreceptors and neurons
61
Q
bipolar neurons
A
- transmits from photoreceptors to ganglion
- passes through ganglion layer to photoreceptor layer to rods and cones
62
Q
nocturnal animals
A
- eyes glow when you shine a light on them
- due to extra layer between retina and choroid
- instead of absorbing it reflects the light
- this layer is called the tapetum lucidum
- less light entering the eye (fewer photon) -> 2 shots to absorb light -> on the way in and way out
- lose some focal acuity on the way out tho (tradeoff)
63
Q
retina
A
- photoreceptors
- 125 million rods: black and white
- 7 million cones: color
- different types of cones that are more sensitive to certain colors
64
Q
optic disc
A
- part of retina
- few photoreceptors
- vascularized
- dominated by neurons and blood vessels
65
Q
macula lutea
A
- part of retina
- darkened area lateral to optic disc
- in the portion of the retina that receives a focus of light
- has high cone concentration in the center (fovea centralis)
- center of visual field
66
Q
fovea centralis
A
- has high cone concentration
- pit in its center on the macula lutea
67
Q
what impact would the destruction of the macula lutea have
A
- loss of some color vision
- center of visual field lost
68
Q
retina: macular degeneration
A
- degeneration of the macula lutea
- typically occurs in older people
- loss of photoreceptors
- and thinning of pigmented layer
- eventual vision loss in the center of the visual field and diminished color perception (fovea centralis cone concentraion)
69
Q
innervation of eye
A
- ganglion -> bipolar neurons -> optic nerves -> brain ->
- visual field of left eye goes to visual cortex on right side of cerebrum
70
Q
lacrimal apparatus
A
- lacrimal gland- superior, lateral to eye, produces tears
- lacrimal puncta- tears move through here, transmit tears into nasal cavity ->
- nasolacrimal duct ->
- inferior nasal concha
- parasympathetic innervation of lacrimal gland from facial VII
- greater petrosal branch -> hiatus of facial canal -> foramen lacerum -> pterygopalatine ganglion -> parasympathetic to lacrimal gland
71
Q
extrinsic muscles of eye
A
- levator palpebrae superioris (oculomotor nerve) -> dilator of eyelid
- attaches to upper eyelid
- opens eye
- sphincter of eyelids- orbicularis oculi -> facial nerve
- palpebral (gentle close) and orbital (tight close) portion
- closing of eye
72
Q
extrinsic muscles that move the eye
A
- superior oblique (trochlear)
- lateral rectus (abducens)
- inferior oblique (oculomotor)
- superior rectus (oculomotor)
- medial rectus (oculomotor)
- inferior rectus (oculomotor)
73
Q
adduction of eye
A
- looking at nose
- medial rectus
- pulls on medial side of front of eyeball
- inferior rectus
- superior rectus
74
Q
abduction of eye
A
- looking towards ear
- lateral rectus
- pulls on lateral side of front of eyeball
- superior oblique- pulls from back of eye on the superior lateral side
- inferior oblique- pulls from back of the eye inferiorly laterally
75
Q
elevation of eye
A
- looking up
- superior rectus
- inferior oblique- pulls from back of the eye inferiorly
76
Q
depression of eye
A
- looking down
- inferior rectus
- superior oblique- pulls from back of eye on the superior lateral side
77
Q
orbital vs. optic axis
A
- orbit of the eye
- optic plane is directly forward
- the muscles comes from the back of the orbit
- the orbit is angled from medial to lateral
- explains why superior and inferior recti are adductors of the pupil (bc they are coming at an angle)
78
Q
starting with the pupil facing straight forward, what would the motion of the eye be if both superior rectus and inferior oblique contracted at the same time
A
- superior rectus- adduction and elevation
- inferior oblique- elevation and abduction
- adduction and abduction cancel out
79
Q
somatic sensation of the eyeball
A
- somatic sensory
- trigeminal nerve: ophthalmic division (V1)
80
Q
hearing
A
- transfer of mechanical vibrations
- auricle -> cochlea
- auricle- fleshy cartilaginous structure surrounding outer ear
- cochlea- has the mechanoreceptors
- middle ear- ear ossicles
- inner ear- cochlea
81
Q
outer ear
A
- lobe
- helix
- antihelix
- antitragus
- concha
- tragus
82
Q
pathway of hearing
A
external ear -> external auditory meatus -> tympanic cavity (eardrum) -> auditory (eustachian) tube -
>
83
Q
tympanic cavity
A
- ear drum
- tympanic membrane: taught membrane
- vibrates based on speed and intensity
- middle ear
84
Q
auditory (eustachian) tube
A
- connects middle ear to nasopharynx
- corrects pressure within middle ear
85
Q
auditory ossicles
A
- malleus- hammer
- incus- envil
- stapes- stirrup
- vibrations pass from tympanic membrane -> malleus -> incus -> stapes -> oval window in petrous bone (temporal) -> inner ear
- tensor tympani- from nasopharynx to malleus (innervation by trigeminal (V3)
- stapedius- form tympanic cavity to stapes (innervation by facial nerve)
- contraction of these muscles during loud noise to protect auditory ossicles
86
Q
inner ear
A
- oval window -> inner ear
- transmitted through fluids in the inner ear
- go to the cochlea
- pick up wavelength and intensity
- mechanoreceptors in cochlea
- cochlear branch -> vestibulocochlear nerve (special sense of hearing and equilibrium)
87
Q
middle ear
A
- auditory tube
- ear ossicles
88
Q
equilibrium
A
- proprioception
- mechanoreceptors
- inner ear
- semicircular canals
- vestibule
89
Q
semicircular canals
A
- within temporal bone
- closely related to the cochlea
- equilibrium
- sensation are picked up mechanoreceptors in the semicircular canals of vestibule -> vestibulocochlear nerve
- bony labyrinth- contains soft tissue structures
- membranous labyrinths- lines the bony labyrinth
- the soft tissues includes equilibrium structures: vestibule, cochlea, semicircular canals
90
Q
membranous labyrinth
A
- surrounds:
- saccule and utricle
- cochlear duct
- semicircular ducts
- contains the fluids
- cochlea has 3 fluid filled spaces
91
Q
perilymph
A
- within the membranous labyrinth
- external to the organs of hearing and sensation
- within the vestibule- picks up vibrations and sends to cochlea, semicircular canals
92
Q
endolymph
A
- within the hearing and sensation organs
- within cochlea duct, semicircular ducts, utricle, saccule
93
Q
vestibular apparatus
A
- within the vestibule
- associated with balance
- macula- hairs
- hairs are the mechanorecpeotrs associated with balance
- statoconic membrane-otolithic layer- gelatinous fluid attached to hairs
- vestibular neurons
- when macula changes orientation due to movement of head -> sensed
- when upright -> hairs are up
- when looking down -> hairs are pushed down
- head tilt
94
Q
cochlea
A
- hearing only (not equilibrium
- cochlear branch
95
Q
given that the macula within the inner ear vestibule function to detect linear motion of the head, what cranial nerve transmit signals from the maculae to the brain
A
-vestibular branch of CN VIII
96
Q
rotational movement
A
- semicircular ducts
- fluid passes through ducts
- fluid will move more quickly when we rotate parallel to the duct
- flows through the ampulae at the ends of the duct
- one ampulae per duct
- within the ampulae there is a cupula -> surrounds many hairs
- ampulla
- as fluid flows past the cupula the cupula is pushed and therefore the hairs -> increase in nerve impulse
- tells us the axis of rotation
- fluid- endolymph
97
Q
semicircular canal orientation
A
- posterior semicircular canal- coronal plane -> tilt head form side to side
- anterior semicircular canal- sagittal plane -> nod head yes
- lateral semicircular canal- horizontal plane -> shake head no
- complex rotations can be in different canals
98
Q
macula
A
- mechanoreceptor hairs
- vestibular nerve branches
- hairs move with gravity
- increases and decreases neurotransmitters
99
Q
ampulla
A
- fluid flows faster in one semicircular duct than another
- direction of rotation in space
- detects head motion
- vestibular branch
100
Q
stapes
A
-at the oval window
101
Q
cochlea
A
- internal space is filled with perilymph
- external auditory canal -> tympanic membrane -> vestibule -> scala vestibuli -> scala tympani -> round window
- scala vestibuli is a part of the cochlea
- scala media- cochlear duct
- strength of wave -> intensity
- wavelength will also only go for certain distance as well
102
Q
which structures within the cochlea are filled with endolymph
A
- cochlear duct
- scala tympani and scala vestibuli do NOT -> they have perilymph
103
Q
tinitis
A
- damage to hair cells
- damage to mechanoreceptors
- injuries to nervous system within the cranial nerve
104
Q
pathway of equilibrium
A
-external auditory canal -> tympanic membrane -> ear ossicles -> window -> scala vestibuli -> cochlear duct -> hairs move within basil membrane -> vibrations -> scala tympani -> round window -> middle ear
105
Q
endocrine system
A
- communication system
- maintain homeostasis
- signals coming from CNS -> transmitted by other glands
- modify organ function or development
- excrete hormones into extracellular space and picked up in blood to pass through whole body -> some cells have the receptors and some dont
- slower signal
- no duct
- neural communication- chemical communication, specific
106
Q
central endocrine system
A
- hypothalamus
- pituitary (2 parts)
- pineal gland
107
Q
peripheral endocrine system
A
- thyroid gland
- parathyroid glands
- pancreas
- adrenal glands (2 parts)
- gonads
108
Q
hypothalamus
A
- inferior on the diencephalon
- different nuclei that excrete different factors
- infundibulum connects the hypothalamus to the pituitary
- neurohypophysis- posterior
- adenohypophysis- anterior
109
Q
pituitary
A
- recieves signals from the hypothalamus
- neurohypophysis-neural tissue (posterior)
- paraventricular nucleus -> oxytocin -> bonding, lactation, late pregnancy
- supraoptic nucleus -> antidiuretic -> high salt ->
- adenohypophysis- glandular tissue (anterior)
- hormones are stored in neurohypophysis (posterior) from the hypothalamus and produced in adenohypophysis (anterior)
110
Q
hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system
A
- two capillary beds that are directly connected to each other -> allows for hormones to go from hypothalamus to the anterior adenohypophysis directly (potent)
- adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary)
- 2 parts: primary capillary plexus (receives hormones from pituitary) and secondary capillary plexus
- GHRH- growth hormone releasing hormone- cause the glandular tissue in adenohypophysis to produce GH -> long bone growth
- GH hormone
111
Q
adenohypophysis hormones
A
- growth hormone (GH)
- adrenocorticotropic (ACTH) -> cortical layer of adrenal gland
- follicle stimulating (FH) -> gonads
- luteinizing (LH) -> gonads
- thyroid stimulating (TSH) -> thyroid
- hormone is produced here
- releases hormones that cause production of other hormones
112
Q
neurohypophysis hormones
A
- antidiuretic (vasopressin)
- oxytocin
- hormone is produced in the hypothalamus and passed to neurohypophysis
113
Q
pineal gland
A
- central
- found in diencephalon
- epithalamus
- produces melatonin (circadian)
- increase and decrease depending on light and time
- based on circadian rhythm
- problems are related to seasonal…
114
Q
thyroid gland
A
- peripheral
- inferior/surrounding to trachea
- receive blood from external carotid and superior thyroid artery
- receives thyroid stimulating hormone through the arteries
- blood stream also carries high level of serum calcium -> produces calcitonin
- calcitonin reduces the level serum calcium -> increase activity of osteoblasts
- calcitonin (and all other hormones produced) is released into venous system -> superior thyroid -> jugular -> brachiocephalic -> vena cava
115
Q
release of calcitonin serves to reduce the level serum calcium through various mechanisms. you also know that bone is a major reservoir of calcium -> given this knowledge, what type of bone cell activity is upregulated by calcitonin
A
-osteoblast
116
Q
parathyroid
A
- peripheral
- produce an opposite effect to thyroid
- posterior side of thyroid
- 4 glandular structures
- if there is low amount of serum calcium -> parathyroid hormone -> osteoclasts are activated (resorption of blood)
- lactation
117
Q
pancreas
A
- peripheral
- elongated
- between spleen and duodenum
- in combination with the liver produces bile (exocrine secretion)
- produce digestive enzymes
- exocrine glands- produce a substance that is released in a duct
- also an endocrine organ
- produces insulin (endocrine) -> breaks down glucose in blood
- lack of insulin -> type 1 diabetes
118
Q
adrenal glands
A
- 2 layers: cortex (outer) and adrenal medulla (inner)
- superior to kidneys
- cortex- produces corticoids (long term stress)
- adrenal medulla- produces epinephrine and norepinephrine (short term stress)
- high vascularized -> very quick signaling
- stress response
119
Q
stress response: fast
A
- the fast arm (within seconds)- activation of the sympathetic nervous system
- sympathetic nervous system signal -> adrenal medulla produces epinephrine (adrenalin), norepinephrine
- very fast
- fight or flight
120
Q
stress response: long term
A
- hypothalamus releases the CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone
- portal system
- makes the anterior pituitary to release the ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)
- causes the adrenal cortex to produce glucocorticoids
- slow arm (within minutes)- activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
- hormones are passing through blood vessels along a long path
121
Q
stress response effects
A
stress causes:
- reproduction (suppresses)
- growth (suppresses)
- digestion (suppresses)
- cardiovascular tone (enhances)
- glucose breakdown (enhances)
- glucose storage (suppresses)
- immune system (immediately enhances, then suppresses)
122
Q
gonads
A
- peripheral
- leydigs cells in the testes of males produce androgens (testosterone) -> increase sperm, development of male organs
- follicle stimulating hormone from the
- estrogens -> maturation of female gametes and gonads -> produced in the walls
- progesterone is from the primary corpus luteum -> produces by gonads -> maintains menstrual cycle
