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1
Q

name and describe the centres located in the medulla oblongata

A

respiratory- controls the rate and depth of breathing
cardiac centre- regulates the rate and force of the heartbeat
vasometer centre- regulates the diameter of blood vessels

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2
Q

what structures make up the peripheral nervous system

A

nerve fibres that carry information to and from the CNS

groups of nerve cell bodies, called ganglia, which lie outside the brain and spinal cord

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3
Q

what are mixed nerves

A

Mixed nerves are nerves that contain both sensory and motor fibers within a single nerve bundle.

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4
Q

what is the dorsal root?

A

one of the two roots that link a spinal nerve to the spinal cord: located towards the back of the body and contains axons of sensory neurons

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5
Q

what is the dorsal root ganglia

A

a group of nerve cell bodies located in the dorsal root of a spinal nerve

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6
Q

what is the ventral root

A

one of the two roots that link a spinal nerve to the spinal cord: located towards the front of the body and contains axons of motor neurons

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7
Q

set point

A

in a feedback system, the level at which a variable is to be maintained

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8
Q

tolerance limit

A

the limit of factors such as temperature and fluid balance beyond which the body malfunctions

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9
Q

what is glycogenesis

A

the process whereby glucose molecules are chemically combined in long chains to form glycogen molecules

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10
Q

glycogenolysis

A

the process of converting glycogen back to glucose

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11
Q

gluconeogenesis

A

the process of producing glucose molecules from lipids and amino acids

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12
Q

what are the hormones secreted from the adrenal glands

A

adrenal cortex- glucocorticoids (cortisol)
adrenal medulla- adrenaline and noradrenaline

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13
Q

what do glucocorticoids (cortisol) do

A

stimulate the conversion of glycogen into glucose in the liver

stimulate protein breakdown in muscles and conversion of amino acids into glucose in the liver

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14
Q

what do adrenaline and noradrenaline do

A

stimulate the breakdown of glycogen in the liver and release of glucose into the blood

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15
Q

what is metabolic rate

A

the rate at which energy is released to the body by the breakdown of food

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16
Q

why is the skin such an important organ in regulating body temperature

A

because it is a large surface area and is located between the internal and external environment. heat can also be lost from the skin by conduction, convection, radiation and evaporation

17
Q

other than sweating, what other modes of evaporation occur in the body

A

water that is evaporated from the lungs and respiratory passage

18
Q

which is more dangerous- heat stroke or heat exhaustion, explain why

A

heat stroke is more dangerous because when temperature and humidity are high, it is difficult for the body to lose heat by radiation or evaporation. in this case, body temperature rises and the regulatory mechanisms cease.

19
Q

what is recombinant DNA technology

A

the procedure used to produce recombinant DNA. involves introducing DNA into a cell from a different type of organism or DNA that has been modified in some way.

20
Q

what is a GMO

A

an organism produced by genetic engineering

21
Q

what is a plasmid

A

in a bacterial cell, small circular strands of DNA distinct from the main bacterial genome, composed of only a few genes and able to replicate independently within the cells

22
Q

what is a vector

A

a bacterial plasmid, viral phage or other such agent used to transfer genetic material from one cell to another.

23
Q

draw and label DNA

A

check book

24
Q

DNA ligase

A

an enzyme capable of combining two small components of single-strand DNA into one single structure.

25
Q

explain why it is possible for an organism of one species to use a gene from another species to produce a protein

A

because the genetic code is universal across all living organisms. This means that the same genetic code is used by all living things to convert the information in DNA into the sequence of amino acids that make up proteins.

For example, the codon AUG codes for the amino acid methionine in all living organisms, from bacteria to humans.

26
Q

explain the importance of complementary bases with respect to inserting a fragment of DNA into a vector

A

it ensures that the fragment is inserted in the correct orientation and location within the vector, allowing for proper functioning and expression of the transferred genetic material.

the vector is cut with a restriction enzyme, creating a sticky end with a specific sequence of nucleotides, and the foreign DNA fragment is cut with the same enzyme, resulting in a complementary sticky end.

27
Q

what does dorsal mean

A

back

28
Q

what does ventral mean

A

front

29
Q

explain how a decrease in the thyroid gland will cause unexplained weight gain

A

Insulin resistance means the patient is still producing insulin, but their body cells are not responding to it

Glucose remains in the blood and is either converted into fat/ lipogenesis is stimulated

the glucose is excreted from the urine

results in less energy expenditure / a decrease in cellular respiration

30
Q

explain how a decrease in the thyroid gland will cause fatigue

A

Thyroxine regulates basal metabolic rate

Without a thyroid gland, the basal metabolic rate decreases

the patient has less energy / ATP available

31
Q

explain how a decrease in the thyroid gland will cause an intolerance to cold

A

Heat energy is released from some of the chemical reactions stimulated by thyroxine

The decrease in thyroxine / basal metabolic rate result in a reduction of body heat

32
Q

explain some of the side effects that synthetic hormones produce

A

not identical to normal (human) hormones. they can have a slight difference in molecules structure

can be difficult to administer correct dose for individuals

33
Q

where is the cerebrospinal fluid found in the brian

A

a space between the middle and inner layers of the meninges. it also circulates through cavities in the brain

34
Q

what are bactericidal

A

change the structure of the cell wall/membrane/disrupt action of essential enzymes/disrupt metabolic pathways

destroy the pathogen

35
Q

what are bacteriostatic

A

prevent reproduction/inhibit growth

disrupting protein synthesis

36
Q

Describe the steps involved in producing the functioning bacterial cell that can be used to make synthetic insulin.

A

Cut out required gene using restriction enzyme

Bacterial plasmid/DNA removed from bacterial cell

Bacterial plasmid/DNA cut with the same restriction enzyme

Gene (for human insulin) inserted into bacterial plasmid/DNA

Recombinant plasmid is inserted into a bacterial cell