investigation

Question 1

How does the Covid-19 virus transmitted?

Answer 1

physical contact- Involves the spread of pathogens by actual physical contact. The contact may be direct by touching an infected person, or indirect, touching an object that has been touched by an infected individual.

infection by droplets- Occurs when tiny droplets of moisture containing pathogenic organisms are emitted when breathing, talking, sneezing, or coughing. The droplets may be breathed in by others or may settle on food or utensils to be later ingested with food.

airborne transmission- When moisture in exhaled droplets evaporates, many bacteria are killed, but viruses and some bacteria remain viable and can cause infection when inhaled. As these particles are lighter, they remain viable for a greater distance than those transmitted by droplets.

Question 2

Describe the body’s natural immune response to viruses

Answer 2

The immune response is a homeostatic mechanism. When micro-organisms or foreign substances enter the body, the immune response helps to deal with the invasion and restore the internal environment to it normal condition.

Question 3

what are the key cells involved in the immune response?

Answer 3

The key cells involved in the immune response are B-cells and T-cells, which are white blood cells called lymphocytes.

Question 4

where are these key cells produced

Answer 4

B-cells and T-cells are both produced in the bone marrow and end up in the lymphoid tissue. However, B-cells mature in the bone marrow and T-cells mature in the thymus.

Question 5

what are the two parts of the body’s immune response

Answer 5

The humoral response or antibody-mediated immunity

The cell-mediated immunity

Question 6

what is the humoral response or antibody-mediated immunity

Answer 6

The humoral response or antibody-mediated immunity involves the production of special proteins called antibodies by B-cells, which circulate around the body and attack invading agents.

Question 7

what is cell-mediated immunity

Answer 7

The cell-mediated response is due to T-cells and involves the formation of special lymphocytes that destroy invading agents.

Question 8

describe the process of the humeral response/ antibody-mediated

Answer 8

1. APC presents the antigen to specific B-cell and T-cell helper cells.
2. The APC and T helper cells release cytokines which activate more B cells.
3. Activated B cells undergo mitosis.
4. Most B cells become plasma cells and secrete antibodies to circulate in the blood, lymph, and extracellular fluid.
5. Antibodies combine with specific antigens to form an antigen-antibody complex and destroy inactive non-self-antigens.
6. The remaining clones become memory cells which circulate all tissues in case of reinfection.

Question 9

describe the process of the cell-mediated response

Answer 9

1. Pathogen is engulfed by the macrophages and the APC presents the antigen on the surface.
2. Help T cells only recognise antigens bound to MHC II
3. Cytokines are released by macrophages and helper T cells.
4. Cytokines stimulate T cells to form clones. They are sensitised, enlarged and divide.
5. Most T cells become killer T cells or helper T cells and migrate to the place where large numbers of antigens are resent. Some become memory cells.
6. Cytokines attract macrophages.
7. Killer T cells release cytokines that cause the death of infected cells.

Question 10

What is an mRNA vaccine?

Answer 10

An mRNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that uses a small piece of genetic material called messenger RNA (mRNA) to teach the body’s immune system how to recognize and fight a specific virus.

The mRNA in the vaccine provides instructions for the body’s cells to produce a harmless piece of the virus (usually a protein), which then triggers an immune response.

This immune response helps the body to recognize and fight the actual virus if the person is exposed to it in the future.

Question 11

How does the mRNA vaccine work?

Answer 11

As part of a normal immune response, the immune system recognizes that the protein is foreign and produces specialized proteins called antibodies.

Antibodies help protect the body against infection by recognizing individual viruses or other pathogens, attaching to them, and marking the pathogens for destruction. Once produced, antibodies remain in the body, even after the body has rid itself of the pathogen so that the immune system can quickly respond if exposed again.

If a person is exposed to a virus after receiving mRNA vaccination for it, antibodies can quickly recognize it, attach to it, and mark it for destruction before it can cause serious illness.

Question 12

administration of the vaccine

Answer 12

The mRNA vaccine is administered via injection into the muscle of the upper arm.

Question 13

delivery of the mRNA

Answer 13

Once inside the body, the mRNA molecules contained in the vaccine enter cells at the site of the injection. The cells take up the mRNA molecules and use them as a blueprint to produce a small piece of the spike protein.

Question 14

presentation of spike protein

Answer 14

The cells then display the spike protein on their surface, which signals the immune system that a foreign invader is present.

Question 15

immune system response to the mRNA

Answer 15

The immune system recognizes the spike protein as foreign and mounts an immune response by producing antibodies against it. This response helps the body recognize and fight the SARS-CoV-2 virus if it enters the body in the future.

Question 16

breakdown of the mRNA

Answer 16

The mRNA molecules in the vaccine are designed to be unstable and break down quickly after they have been used, so they do not permanently alter the genetic code of cells.

Question 17

Provide an example of a covid 19 vaccine (administered in Australia) that is an mRNA vaccine.

Answer 17

moderna

Question 18

describe moderna

Answer 18

The Moderna vaccine was approved for use in Australia in August 2021 and is currently being rolled out in limited quantities. It also requires two doses administered four weeks apart.

The Moderna vaccine also uses mRNA to instruct cells to produce the same spike protein.

it works by stimulating the immune system to recognize and fight the spike protein, which can help protect against COVID-19.

Question 19

What is a protein sub-unit vaccine?

Answer 19

Instead of using a whole dead or attenuated micro-organism, a fragment of the organism can be used to provoke the immune system response, these subunits are usually proteins found on the surface of the pathogen, such as a spike protein or a capsule protein.

Question 20

How do subunit vaccines work?

Answer 20

To make a protein subunit vaccine, scientists first identify the specific proteins that are most likely to trigger an immune response against the pathogen.

They then create a purified form of these proteins using genetic engineering or chemical methods. The purified proteins are then combined with other components, such as adjuvants or carriers, to enhance the immune response and make the vaccine more effective.

Question 21

Provide an example of a covid-19 vaccine administered in Australia) that is a protein sub-unit vaccine.

Answer 21

Novavax

Question 22

describe novanax

Answer 22

is a protein subunit vaccine. Novavax is a protein-based vaccine. This type of vaccine contains part of the coronavirus spike protein.

Your immune system cells recognise the spike protein as a threat and begin building an immune response against it.

The Novavax vaccine also has an ingredient called the Matrix-M adjuvant. This helps create a stronger immune response to the vaccine. Novavax does not contain any live virus and it cannot give you COVID-19.

Question 23

Explain, In detail, the need for masks

Answer 23

Can reduce the spread of infection by droplets and through airborne transmission.

Masks can prevent infected individuals from spreading the virus, therefore, protecting uninfected individuals from inhaling the COVID-19 virus.

Masks will benefit individuals where social distancing is not possible. This reduces the chance of inhaling the virus.

Masks are important in indoor areas where there is poor ventilation. It can reduce the risk of transmission.

Important for protecting the elderly population and those who are at a higher risk of severe illness if contracting COVID-19.

Question 24

Explain, In detail, the need for isolation periods

Answer 24

Can help prevent infected individuals from spreading the virus to others during the contagious period.

Can reduce the spread of pathogens via direct physical contact.

Reduces the number of cases and prevents outbreaks.

Question 25

Explain, In detail, the need for vaccinations.

Answer 25

Can promote herd immunity which is important for protecting vulnerable populations and reducing the number of cases.

Prevent individuals from becoming infected with the virus, hospitalised or dying.

Reduce the severity of infection.

Reduce the spread of the virus within communities and prevent future outbreaks.

Stimulate antibodies against the virus to produce long-term protection.

Question 26

what is herd immunity

Answer 26

A type of ‘group’ immunity that occurs when such a high proportion of people in a population are immunised that those who are not immunised are protected.

Question 27

social impact of covid 19

Answer 27

Social isolation: The pandemic and the necessary measures to contain its spread, such as lockdowns and social distancing, have led to increased social isolation. Many people have been unable to see family and friends, and some have experienced loneliness and mental health issues.

Education: The pandemic has disrupted education, with many students forced to study remotely. This has created challenges for both students and teachers, and some students may have fallen behind in their studies.

Mental health: The pandemic has had a significant impact on mental health, with many people experiencing increased stress, anxiety, and depression. The pandemic has also led to increased demand for mental health services.

Racial and cultural discrimination towards the Asian population due to the origin of the virus.

Question 28

economic impacts of covid 19

Answer 28

Job losses and unemployment: The pandemic has caused many businesses to close, leading to job losses and higher unemployment rates. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), the unemployment rate in Australia rose from 5.2% in March 2020 to 7.5% in July 2020.

Reduced economic activity: The pandemic has led to reduced economic activity, as businesses have been forced to close or operate at reduced capacity. This has had a ripple effect across the economy, impacting industries such as tourism, hospitality, and retail.

International trade and supply chains: The pandemic has disrupted international trade and supply chains, causing delays and shortages of goods and services. This has impacted industries such as manufacturing and logistics.

Question 29

the impact covid vaccines has had on social and economic factors and how they relate to each other

Answer 29

Social
Increased vaccination rates have helped to reduce the spread of COVID-19 in the community, reducing the need for social distancing measures and lockdowns. This has enabled people to return to their workplaces and social activities, improving social cohesion and mental wellbeing.

Vaccination has also helped to reduce the burden on healthcare systems, allowing hospitals to focus on other medical needs and reducing the risk of healthcare worker burnout.

Vaccination has provided a sense of security and hope for the future, reducing anxiety and stress levels in the community.

Economic
Higher vaccination rates have enabled businesses to reopen and operate at full capacity, leading to increased economic activity and growth. This has helped to reduce job losses and unemployment rates, supporting the economic recovery.

The reduced spread of COVID-19 through vaccination has also helped to stabilize supply chains and international trade, reducing the risk of disruptions and shortages.

Increased vaccination rates have helped to restore consumer confidence, leading to increased spending and investment.

Question 30

why might some people not get vaccinated in terms of social

Answer 30

Misinformation: People may be misinformed about the safety and effectiveness of vaccines due to misinformation or conspiracy theories spread through social media or other sources.

Fear of side effects: Some individuals may be afraid of experiencing side effects from the vaccine, or may have experienced adverse reactions to vaccines in the past.

Political beliefs: In some cases, political beliefs may influence people’s views on vaccines, especially if vaccines have become a politically polarizing issue.

Question 31

why might some people not get vaccinated in terms of economic

Answer 31

Cost: While most COVID-19 vaccines are free to the general public in many countries, some people may still face financial barriers to getting vaccinated, such as transportation costs to vaccination sites or time off work to get vaccinated. For those who do have to pay for vaccines or may have to pay out-of-pocket expenses for travel or lost wages, the cost of vaccination could be a deterrent.

Fear of Lost Wages: Some people may be hesitant to get vaccinated because they are worried about missing work due to potential side effects of the vaccine, which could lead to lost wages or difficulty paying bills. This is particularly true for people who work in jobs that do not offer paid time off or sick leave.

Question 32

why might some people not get vaccinated in terms of cultural

Answer 32

Some individuals may have cultural or religious beliefs that conflict with vaccination, such as the belief that vaccines are unnatural or that illness is part of God’s plan.

language barrier- there may be language barriers or a lack of access to healthcare and vaccination resources, which can disproportionately affect certain cultural groups. I

Question 33

what is the basic reproduction number

Answer 33

an indicator of the contagiousness or transmissibility of infectious and parasitic agents

Question 34

what do helper t cells do

Answer 34

Secrete a substance that sensitises more lymphocytes

Secrete a substance that attracts more macrophages

Secrete a substance that enhances macrophage activity

Question 35

what do killer t cells do

Answer 35

Killer T cells attach to antigens and destroy them.

Question 36

what is an pathogen

Answer 36

a disease-causing organism, often referred to as a pathogenic organism

Question 37

what is an antigen

Answer 37

any substance capable of causing the formation of antibodies when introduced into the tissue

Question 38

what is an antibody

Answer 38

a substance produced in response to a specific antigen combines with the antigen to neutralise or destroy it

Question 39

what is the difference between an pathogen and an antigen

Answer 39

An antigen is any substance that can trigger an immune response in the body by interacting with the immune system’s cells or molecules.

A pathogen, on the other hand, is a type of antigen that specifically causes disease.

Question 40

examples of pathogens

Answer 40

Pathogens are infectious agents that can invade and replicate within living cells, disrupting normal bodily functions and causing a range of illnesses from mild to severe.

Question 41

examples of antigens

Answer 41

Antigens can be either foreign substances, such as a virus, bacteria, or pollen, or self-antigens that the body recognizes as “non-self” and attacks, such as cancer cells.

Question 42

what immune response will the mRNA vaccine cause

Answer 42

humoral/antibody-mediated immunity

cell-mediated immunity

Question 43

what immune response will the protein sub unit cause

Answer 43

humoral/antibody-mediated immunity

Question 44

does a protein sub unit enter a cell

Answer 44

no

Question 45

why does mRNA produce humoral and cell-mediated immunity

Answer 45

because the mRNA is going into your cell and provides instructions to the cell on how to produce a specific type of protein. therefore cell-mediated immunity will be triggered because it is inside the cell

the protein will then be displayed on the surface of the cell and is therefore on the outside of the cell and so the humoral immune response will be triggered

Question 46

why does protein sub unit produce only produce a humoral immune response

Answer 46

a protein sub-unit vaccine is injected into your body and not into your cells therefore it is already on the outside of your cell and so it will trigger the humoral immune response

Question 47

what is the functions of antibodies

Answer 47

Inacatviate foreign enzymes or toxins by inhibiting their reaction with other cells

Bind to the surface of viruses and prevent them from entering

Coat bacteria with a substance so that phagocytes more easily consume them

Cause particles to undergo agglutination assisting phagocytes in consuming them

dissolve organisms

React with soluble substances to make them insoluble and more easily consumed by phagocytes

Question 48

what protein is used in both vaccines

Answer 48

spike protein

Question 49

what are macrophages

Answer 49

a phagocytic cell derived from a monocyte (a type of white blood cell)

Question 50

what are lymphocytes

Answer 50

a white blood cell that is responsible for the immune response

Question 51

what are two types of lymphocytes

Answer 51

B cells and T cells

Question 52

what are all B cells covered in

Answer 52

membrane bound antibodies

Question 53

what is the point of membrane-bound antibody

Answer 53

every individual lymphocyte has its own unique antibodies, each of which is ready to identify and bind to a particular kind of antigen.

So, part of your immune system’s strategy is just to win with overwhelming odds:

The more unique antibodies your lymphocytes have, the more likely it is that one will eventuallyfind, bind to, and mark a particular antigen.

Question 54

what do plasma cells do

Answer 54

plasma cells, are packed with extra amounts of rough endoplasmic reticulum, which acts as an antibody factory.

These cells can mass-produce the same antibodies over and over for that particular invader,

And the antibodies they make work the same way that the membrane-bound ones do; they’re just free-floating.

Question 55

can antibody get inside cells

Answer 55

no

Question 56

what is MHC

Answer 56

Every nucleated cell in your body – which means all of your cells except for your red blood cells – have one kind of MHC protein on their surface, called class 1 MHC.

MHC 1 proteins present short chains of amino acids that are based on endogenous proteins that is, proteins synthesized inside that cell.

So if a particular cell is healthy, the antigens on its MHC 1 tell roving immune cells that everything’s ok inside, nothing to see here.

But if the cell is, say, cancerous and it’s making abnormal proteins, then it’ll fix bits of those proteins to its MHC, which alerts immune cells that there’s a problem inside, and basically asks to be killed.

Question 57

what does a helper T cell do

Answer 57

Now, much like how a naive B-cell carries antibodies for one specific antigen, a naive helper T cell has receptors that will only bind to one specific combination of a class 2 MHC and a particular antigen.

If that match is right, the Helper T bonds to the MHC-antigen bit and it gets activated.

Then, just like with the B cells we talked about last time, the Helper T starts copying itself like crazy, making a few memory T cells as well, which remember that particular antigen should it meet one again in the future.

Question 58

what is a vaccine

Answer 58

the introduction of antigens to a person so that they acquire immunity without suffering from illness

Question 59

where does protein synthesis take place

Answer 59

in the cytoplasm the mRNA doesn’t enter the nucleus