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Moralfilosofi och metaetik > PSYD13 Delkurs 1 - Research Methods > Flashcards

PSYD13 Delkurs 1 - Research Methods Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 7 steps in the scientific process?

A
  1. Initial observation or question 2. Gather information and form hypothesis 3. Test hypothesis 4. Analyse data and draw tentative conclusion 5. Report findings to scientific community 6. Further research and theory building 7. New hypothesis derived from theory
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2
Q

What is the distinction between a hypothesis and a prediction?

A

A hypothesis is based on knowledge obtained while formulating the question, wheras a prediction is the logical consequences of the hypothesis, i.e. the hypothesis is broader and the prediction is the expected statistical results based on the hypothesis.

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3
Q

Theory?

A

a set of formal statements that explains how and why certain events are related to one another

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4
Q

What are 2 approaches to understanding behaviour?

A
  1. Hindsight 2. Understanding through prediction, control and theory building
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5
Q

What is the problem with hindsight as an approach to understanding behaviour?

A

Post-hoc (= “after the event”) and ergo (= and so,/therefore) propter hoc (=resulting from the event). In simpler terms, post-hoc means to assume that if one event happens after another, the first event must have caused the second.

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6
Q

What is an advantage of hindsight to understand behaviour?

A

Hindsight, or after-the-fact understanding, can provide insight, and lead to “actual” scientific studies.

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7
Q

Law of Parsimony?

A

If 2 theories can explain and predict the same phenomenon equally well, the simpler theory is to prefer

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8
Q

Occam’s razor?

A

Occam’s razor says that the more assumptions we need to make about something, the less likely we are to be addressing the right answer.

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9
Q

Variable?

A

Any characteristic or factor that can vary

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10
Q

Situational variables?

A

Variable that is relative to the situation (what kind of information a person recieves)

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11
Q

Individual variables?

A

Personal characteristics (gender, age, intelligence)

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12
Q

Response variables?

A

Behaviour in a situation (reaction time, how long we need to solve problems etc.)

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13
Q

Operational defintion?

A

Defines a variable in terms of the specific procedures used to produce or measure it. Ex; defining a concept while writing a scientific report, so that the reader can understand.

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14
Q

What is the relationship between a variable and an operational definition?

A

For us to be able to operationally define a variable, we must be able to measure the said variable. Ex; “academic performance” must be defined by something that can be measured, like a test score.

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15
Q

What are self-report measures?

A

Ask people to report on their knowledge, attitudes, feelings, experiences or behaviour, through for example a questionnaire.

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16
Q

Social desirability bias?

A

The tendency to respond in a socially acceptable manner rather than according to how one truly feels or behaves.

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17
Q

What are reports made by other people?

A

Reports of what for example friends, family, teachers etc think of said person.

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18
Q

What is the measurement approach “observe and record overt behaviour?

A

Overt = directly visible. These kinds of methods record directly visible behaviours, usually through coding systems.

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19
Q

What are coding systems?

A

Psychologists develop coding systems to categorise different types of behaviour, ex “praises child”, in aims to make their study more reliable.

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20
Q

Unobtrusive measure?

A

Records behaviour in a way that keeps participants unaware that they are being observed

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21
Q

Archival measure?

A

Record or document that already exists

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22
Q

What are psychological tests, and what are some examples?

A

Psychologists develop and use specialised tests to measure many types of variables, ex personality test, intelligence tests and neurophysiological tests.

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23
Q

What are physiological measures?

A

Heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate, hormonal secretions, brain activity etc.

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24
Q

What is a problem with physiological measures?

A

A problem can be that the correlation between psychological and physiological measures aren’t always clear.

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25
Q

What are 4 principles that represent ethical principles worldwide?

A
  1. Competence 2. Responsibility 3. Integrity 4. Resepct
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26
Q

What does informed consent entail?

A

Participants shall be informed about the following before agreeing to participate:
- purpose and procedure
- study’s potential benefits
- potential risks
- whether responses will be confidential, and if not how they will be safeguarded
Also: the right to withdraw at any moment

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27
Q

What happens with informed consent when it comes to children + vulnerable people?

A

Consent must be gained from parents/guardians.

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28
Q

What is deception (in relation to participants in studies)?

A

Deception is when participants are misled about the nature of the study.

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29
Q

Why is deception controversial?

A

Sometimes, to get natural responses, deception can be needed. However, it tends to be avoided in research, and if it is needed, it needs ethical approval.

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30
Q

What are 2 other points that need to be taken into consideration regarding ethics?

A
  1. Privacy and Confidentiality 2. Debriefing
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31
Q

What is a point often overlooked when it comes to animal research?

A

The importance of welfare of the animals - not only is it important for the good of the animals, but also for the results of the research - a stressed animal might not behave the same as an animal that is fine.

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32
Q

What are the main 3 types of research design?

A
  1. Non-experimental (descriptive/correlational) 2. Experimental 3. Quasi-experimental
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33
Q

Descriptive research?

A

Seeks to identify how humans and other animals behave, particularly in natural settings

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34
Q

Case studies?

A

An in-depth analysis of an individual, group or event

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35
Q

What are the 2 main problems with descriptive research?

A
  1. It cannot show causal relationships 2. Bias from the observer
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36
Q

Naturalistic observation?

A

The researcher observes behaviour as it occurs in a natural setting

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37
Q

What is survey research?

A

A descriptive research design that obtains information about a topic by administering questionnaires or interviews to many people

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38
Q

Population?

A

All the individuals that we are interested in drawing a conclusion about

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39
Q

Sample?

A

A subset of individuals drawn from larger population

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40
Q

Representative sample?

A

Reflects the important characteristics of the population

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41
Q

Unrepresentative sample?

A

The opposite to representative sample

42
Q

Stratified random sampling?

A

Dividing the population into subgroups based on different variables, like for example gender or ethnic identity.

43
Q

Correlational research?

A

Measures one variable (x), measures a second variable (y), and statistically determines where x and y are related

44
Q

Bidirectionally (i.e. two-way causality) problem?

A

Basically what came first - the egg or the chicken?

45
Q

What does it mean when scientists call something spurios?

A

= not genuine

46
Q

Third-variable problem?

A

z is responsible for what looks like a correlation between x and y - i.e. z makes it look like x and y correlate, when in fact z separately affects x and y

47
Q

Correlation coefficient?

A

A statistic that indicates the direction of strength of the relation between two variables

48
Q

Positive correlation?

A

Higher scores on one variable are associated with higher scores on a second variable

49
Q

Negative correlation?

A

When higher scores on one variable are associated with lower scores on a second variable

50
Q

Scatterplots?

A

Graphs that show the correlation between two variables

51
Q

What are 4 benefits of correlational research?

A
  1. You can compare correlation research with the real world, i.e. check if the research correlates with a real world phenomena
  2. Correlational research can be conducted before experiments to discover associations
  3. Research that cannot be done experimentally because of practical and/or ethical reasons, can be researched
  4. Correlational research allows us to make predictions
52
Q

Define an experiment

A

The experimenter manipulates one or more variables, measures whether this manipulation influences other variables and attempts to control extraneous factors that might influence the outcome of the procedure

53
Q

Independent variable (IV)?

A

The factor that is manipulated by the experimentor

54
Q

Define the 2 different types of IV

A
  1. Attribute variable = variable that cannot be manipulated for ex sex
  2. Experimental variable (something that can be systematically manipulated, like for ex different feedback, sugar-pills, placebo, to see if it can affect the dependent variable).
55
Q

Dependent variable (DV)?

A

The factor that is measured by the experimentor and may be influences by the IV - is dependent on the IV

56
Q

Experimental group?

A

The group that recieves a treatment or an active level of the independent variable

57
Q

Control group?

A

Is not exposed to the treatment or recieves a zero level of the independent variable

58
Q

What are 2 basic ways to design an experiment?

A

Random or counterbalancing

59
Q

Random assignment design?

A

Procedure in which each participant has an equal likelihood of being assigned to any one group within an experiment

60
Q

Counterbalancing design?

A

Procedure in which the order of conditions is varied so that no condition has an overall advantage relative to the others

61
Q

Quantitive vs Qualitative research?

A

In simple terms: Quantitive = “how much” or “how many”, whereas Qualitative = “why?” and “how?”

62
Q

What is a mixed-methods design?

A

A mixed-methods design takes advantage of the benefits of both quantitive and qualitative design:

63
Q

What are 5 examples of threats are there to the validity of research?

A
  1. Internal validity 2. Confounding variables 3. Demand characteristics, 4. Placebo effect 5. Experimenter expectancy effects
64
Q

Internal validity?

A

The degree to which an experiment supports clear causal conclusions

65
Q

Confounding variables?

A

Two variables are intertwined in such a way that we cannot determine which one has influences a dependent variable

66
Q

Demand characteristics?

A

Cues that participants pick up about the hypothesis of a study or about they are supposed to behave

67
Q

Placebo?

A

A substance that has no pharmacological effect

68
Q

Placebo effect?

A

People receiving treatment show a change in behaviour because of their expectations, not because the treatment itself had any specific benefit

69
Q

Experimenter expectancy effects?

A

Subtle and unintentional ways researchers influence their participants to respond in a manner that is consistent with the researcher’s hypothesis

70
Q

Double-blind procedure?

A

When both the participant and the experimenter are kept blind as to which experimental condition the participant is in. This is to avoid demand characteristics and experimenter expectancy effects

71
Q

External validity?

A

The degree to which the results of a study can be generalised to other populations, settings and conditions, i.e. how well does the study “fit into” the real world.

72
Q

Replication?

A

The process of repeating a study to determine whether the original findings can be duplicated

73
Q

It is important for the validity of a study that it can be replicated, but what can be a problem regarding replication as a means of validity?

A

Tests that are valid are also reliable, however a test can be reliable (can be replicated) without being valid - a test can repeatedly show the same thing but measure the wrong thing

74
Q

What is the replication crisis?

A

A crisis that has occurred in several research fields, like for example psychology and cancer research, where research can’t be replicated (and its a probably for fields where no studies can be replicated)

75
Q

Anomalistic psychology?

A

The study of unusual or seemingly paranormal experiences, but from a scientific and psychological perspective.

76
Q

What does descriptive statistics allow us to do?

A

They allows us to summarise and describe the characteristics of a set (or distribution) of data

77
Q

Mode?

A

The most frequently occurring score in a distribution

78
Q

Median?

A

The point that divides a distribution of scores in half when those scores are arranged in order from lowest to highest

79
Q

What are measures of central tendency?

A

Mode, median and mean

80
Q

MEAN?

A

The arithmetic average of a set of scores

81
Q

What are measures of variability?

A

Range and SD

82
Q

Range?

A

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

83
Q

Standard deviation (SD)?

A

Takes into account how much each score in a distribution differs from the mean

84
Q

What does inferential statistics allow us to do?

A

Allow us to make inferences about a population from data provided by a sample of that distribution

85
Q

What is statistical significance?

A

It means that it is very unlikely that a particular finding occurred by chance alone (p-value)

86
Q

What is a meta-analysis?

A

A statistical procedure for combining the results of different studies that examine the same topic

87
Q

Effect-size?

A

A measure of the strength or magnitude of a relationship between two variables, or the size of the difference between groups

88
Q

What does it mean that a prediction has to be feasible?

A

It means that when one formulates a prediction, it has to be able to be answered

89
Q

What is empirically derived knowledge?

A

Conclusions developed on the basis of observation, which can either be with low/no control which is called descriptive research, or controlled and manipulated conditions, which is called experimental research

90
Q

What is a cross sectional study?

A

A type of observational research where data is collected at one specific point in time from a group of people to study a particular phenomenon, condition, or characteristic.

91
Q

What is a longitudinal study?

A

A study that is done over a long period of time

92
Q

What is correlation?

A

Correlation describes the relationship between two equal-interval variables

93
Q

What are the advantages of experimental design and possible downsides?

A

+ Reduction of the influence of extraneous variables (= variables that you are not investigating)
Allows for accurate recording of human cognitive functions
Can be replicated
Without laboratory research we would be unaware of many phenomena!
- Doesn’t necessarily mirror “real-life”.

94
Q

What are 3 experimental design concepts?

A

Independent samples, matched pairs and repeated measures design

95
Q

Independent samples?

A
  • Experiments with different people in each group or condition
  • Randomize individuals to groups
    In this design there is an experiment group and control group
  • Ex:Group A: watches horror movie, group B: watches nature film)
96
Q

What are matched pairs, and its possible problem?

A

Matched pairs is when you match groups by a variable like for example gender, age, etc. A problem with this is that you can always forget a variable (ex. downsyndrome + reading + eyesight)

97
Q

Repeated measures design?

A

Experiments with the same individuals in each condition (control group not required)

98
Q

What is a possible problem with a repeated measures design?

A
  1. Order effects = the order in which conditions are given can be confounding variable
  2. “Carro-over-effect” = the effect of one condition ‘rubs off’ on the next
  3. Habituation
  4. Adaption
  5. Practice effects (=you adapt to the procedure)
99
Q

What are quasi experimental designs?

A

The same as experimental design but without random allocation of participants to groups

100
Q

What does the Nuremberg code (1947) say?

A
  • Research must have positive consequence for the community
  • Risks to research participants must be minimised
  • Established informed consent
  • Participant has the right to terminate participation
  • Researcher to terminate experiment if a participant is being harmed
101
Q

What are the 2 principles for good research (god forskningsed)?

A
  1. Individual protection requirement
  2. Research requirement

Moralfilosofi och metaetik (7 decks)

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