Psychopathology Flashcards
What is an abnormality
Deviation from social norms
What is a social norm
A rule of what is acceptable behaviour
What is an explicit norm
Volunteering breaking laws
What are implicit rules
Agreed upon a matter of convections within society
What is assumed if you deviate from these norms
You are seen as abnormal
What is DSM
Psychopathology
What is ICD
Medical
What are deviation from social norms
Concerns behaviour which is different from the accepted standards of behaviour in a community or society
What are deviation from social norms
Concerns behaviour which is different from the accepted standards of behaviour in a community or society
What is statistical infrequency
Occurs when an individual has less common characteristic’s for example being depressed or less intelligent than most of the population
What is failure to function adequately
Occurs when someone is unable to cope with ordinary demands of day to day living
What is deviation from ideal mental health
Occurs when someone does not meet a set of criteria for good mental health
What’s a weakness of using deviation from social norms
Social norms vary overtime
Social norms are culturally relative
Abuses human rights
How are social norms varying overtime a weakness
Social norms vary as time changes
Social acceptable now many not have been 50 years ago
Homosexuality was seen as unacceptable 50 years ago but now is accepted
How is social norms are culturally relative a weakness
Social norms are defined by culture
A person from one cultural group may label someone from another culture as abnormal
According to their standards rather than the standards of the person behaving in that way
How is social norms abusing human rights a weakness
Can lead to violation of human rights
Drapetomania (slaves running away0
Nymphomania (women being sexual attracted to working class men)
These diagnosis were used to control minority ethnic groups + women
What’s a strength of using socail Norms
Takes into account desirable behaviours
Why is a strength that social norms take into account desirable behaviours
It includes issues of desirability of behaviour
Behaviour that are numerically rare (statistically abnormal can be socially acceptable + therefore not abnormal)
Being a genius is statistically abnormal but doesn’t suggest it is abnormal behaviour in terms of psychopathology
What are characteristics that show you are statistically infrequent
A persons traits/thinking/behaviour is considered an indication of abnormality if it was found to be numerically(statistically) rare/uncommon/anomalous
Regarded as numerically rare depends on normal distribution any individual who falls outside ‘normal distribution’
Two standard deviations away which is about 5% of the population is considered to be abnormal
Why is using statistical infrequencies a weakness
We cannot differentiate between desirable +undesirable behaviours
It’s culturally
Costs to person out way the benefits
Why can’t statistical infrequencies differentiate between desirable + undesirable behaviours
Statistically rare/infrequent behaviours are actually quite desirable very few people have IQ over 150
We don’t wanna suggest having IQ over 150 is abnormal or undesirable
Some statistically frequencies undesirable behaviours
10% of people will be chronically depressed at some point in their lives
Depression is so communal that it is not seen as abnormal
How is statistcail infrequency being culturally relative a weakness
Behaviours that are statistically infrequent in one culture may be statistically infrequent in another
Symptoms of schizophrenia is claiming to hear voices
This Experience is common in some cultures
Spiritualist take in religious rituals believing they are talking to the dead
How is the cost to a person out waying the benefits a weakness for statistical infrequency
Someone living a happy + fulfilled life
No benefit in them being labeled as abnormal regardless of how unusual they are
Someone with very low IQ but who is not distressed quite capable of working
Would not need a diagnosis of intellectual disability disorder
If a person is labelled as abnormal it can have negative effects on the way others view them + how they view themselves
How is using statistical infrequency a strength
It has real world application
How is having real world application + can asses patient characteristic’s a strength
Useful as part of clinical assessment
Real life application in the diagnosis of intellectual disability disorder
A place for statistical infrequency thinking about normal behavioural characteristic’s
Assessments of patients with metal disorders including some kind of measurement of severity of symptoms compared to statistical norms
What are signs someone cannot function adequately
People with psychological disorders often experience considerable suffering + a general inability to cope with their everyday activities they are unable to function adequately
Classed as abnormal having to clean germs off items may mean your late for work so get fired
If you get fired cannot maintain(cope with) a job
Classed as abnormal(OCD)
Suggests that a person is classed as abnormal in their behaviour causes distress to themselves or others
What are the weakness of failure to function adequately
Psychopath as are normal because they can function adequately
It is culturally relative
It’s a subjective definition
What is a strength of using the definition of failure to function adequetly
Takes into account persons own opinion
Why is it a weakness that psychopaths can be seen as normal because they can function adequately
Psychopaths (dangerous personalities) can cause harm + yet still appear Normal
How is it a weakness that failure to function adequately in culturally relative
In some cultures women are not expected to maintain a job or people are expected to go without food for significant periods of time
Such people would be classified as abnormal because their cultural norms differ from our own
This explains why lower class + non white patients are often classed as abnormal
Lifestyle are different from the dominant culture this may read to judgment of failing to function adequately
How is being a subjective definition a weakness of failure to function adequately
Deciding weather someone is failing to function adequately someone has judge wether a patient is distressing others
Patients may say they are distressed but nay not be judged as suffering
Method for making such assessments as objective as possible such as global assessments of functioning scale
Principles remains that someone has the right to make a judgment
Why is it a strength that failure to function adequately takes into account persons own opinion
Attempts to include subjective experience of individual
It may not be an entirely satisfactory approach it is difficult to assess distress
Definition acknowledges that experiences of the patients is important
Definition captures the experience of many who need help
What did Jahoda discover/say
He looked at the positive rather then negatives of the idea of mental health rather than mental illness
Identified 6 major criteria optimal living
Believed promoted psychological health + well- being enabling an individual to feel happy (face of distress) + behave competently
Anyone lacking any qualities would be vulnerable to mental disorders
‘Abnormal’
Characteristics fail to meet + further they are from realising them as abnormal
What were Jahodas criteria
Self-attitudes
Personal growth + self actualisation
Integration
Autonomy
Accurate perception of reality
Mastery of the environment
What are self’s attitudes
Having self esteem + a strong sense of identity
High self respect + a positive self-concept
What is personal growth and self actualisation
The extent to which an individual develops their capabilities
Fulfilling ones potential
What is integration
Being able to cop with stressful situations
What is autonomy
Being independent + self reliant and able to make personal decisions
What is accurate perception of reality
Perceiving the world in a non - distorted fashion
Objective + realistic view of the world
What is mastery of the environment
Competent in all aspects of life + being able to meet the demands of any situation
Ability to love function at work + in interpersonal relationships adjust to new situations + solve problems
What are the weakness for using deviation from ideal mental health
Culturally relative
Generalise to everyone
Temporal validity
What are the strengths of using deviation from ideal mental health
It covers a lot of reasons someone would seek help
Why is deviation from ideal mental health being culturally relative a weakness
Criteria are culture bound to Western Europe + North American cultures
Self-actualisation seeking to fulfil our own potential is a prime goal in an individualistic cultures not in collectivist cultures
Some cultures the elders plan young persons future for them
It is regarded as abnormal for them to pursue individual goals
Autonomy is the overwhelming sense of duty in some cultures
Collectivist cultures communal goals + behaviours are desirable such cultures it would not be seen as ‘normal’ to be independent + self-regulating
Why is it a weakness that deviation from ideal mental health is generalised to everyone
Most us are abnormal
Jahoda presented ideal criteria
there are certainly few people experiencing personal growth all of the time
Criteria may be ideals rather than actualities
This could be a positive as it makes it clear how everyone could improve their mental health
It is negative as it means the definition is probably of no value in thinking about people who might benefit from treatment against their will
The criteria are quite difficult to measure
Easy is it to assess capacity for personal growth or environmental mastery
The approach may be am interesting concept but not really useable when it comes to identifying abnormalities
Why is it a weakness that deviation from ideal mental health lacks temporal validity
Perceptions of reality change overtime
Visions was a positive sign of religious commitment now it would be perceived as a sign of schizophrenia
Why is it a strength that deviation from ideal mental health covers a lot of reasons someone would seek help
Very comprehensive
Covers a broad range of criteria for mental health
Most of the reasons why someone seek help from mental health services of referred for help
What is a phobia
An irrational fear
What is behavioural
Ways in which people act
What is emotional
Ways in which people feel
What is cognitive
Refers to the process of thinking knowing perceiving believing
What is the behavioural approach
A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable + in terms of learning
What is classical conditioning
Learning by association occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together
Unconditioned stimulus + a new neutral stimulus
Neutral stimulus eventually produces same response that was first produced by the unlearned stimulus alone
What is operant conditioning
A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped + maintained by its consequences
Consequences of behaviour include
positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Punishment
What is a phobia
A group of mental disorders within the category of anxiety disorders
Irrational fears of an object or situation
Anxiety fears with normal living
What are the types of phobia
Panic (emotion)
Hyper vigilance (cognitive)
Anxiety ( cognitive)
Avoiding (behaviour)
Endurance (behaviour)
Irrational beliefs (cognitive)
Cognitive distortion (cognitive)
Emotional responses are unreasonable (emotion)
Who made the Two process model of phobias and what is it
Mowerer two process model based on behavioural approach to phobias
Phobias are acquired by classical conditioning + are continued through process of operant conditioning
Little Albert associating appearance of fluffy rats with banging against a metal bar
How is classical conditioning used in the two process model
Negative experience with stimulus
Now associates stimulus with fear
How is operant conditioning used in the two process model of phobias
Operant always avoid stimulus causing anxiety level to drop
Negative reinforcement
What phobias cannot be explained by the two process model
Dark scientific basis
How do you do systematic desensitisation
- Learning breathing/calming techniques
2.client creates a hierarchy of phobic situations
3.Work from least stressful to most taking time to calm down between stages
4.reach apex of hierarchy after multiple sessions
What is flooding
Behavioural therapy used to treat phobias + other anxiety disorders
Immediately exposed to images
Extreme form of threatening situation anxiety reaction extinguished
How does flooding work
Counter conditioning
Learning new response
Flooding counter conditioning occurs as a new response (relaxed instead of anxious)
Phobic stimulus is learned
Reciprocal inhibition - meaning one emotion prevents the other
What is reciprocal inhibition
Idea you cannot feel afraid + relaxed at the same time
Which types of phobias are emotions
Panic
Emotional responses are unreasonable
Which types of phobias are cognitive
Hyper vigilance
Anxiety
Irrational beliefs
Cognitive distortion
Which type of phobias are behaviour
Avoiding
Endurance
What is depression
A mental disorder characterised by low mood + low energy levels
What is behavioural
Ways in which people act
What is emotional
Ways in which people feel
What is cognitive
Refers to process of thinking - knowing perceiving believing
What is the cognitive approach
Cognitive - mental process
An approach focused on how mental process affect behaviour/depression
What is the negative triad and who proposed it and what does it cause
Beck proposed there are there kinds of negative thinking that contribute to becoming depressed
Negative view of the world, the future, the self
Such Negative views lead a person to interpret their experiences in a negative way + so make them more vulnerable to depression
What is the ABC model and what does each letter stand for and what is key to the process
Ellis proposed that depression occurs when a activating event (A)
Triggers an irrational belief (B)
Which in turn produces a consequence (C)
Emotional response like depression
Key to this process is irrational beliefs
What is depression
A mood disorder characterised by low mood + low energy levels
What are signs of depression and what type of process is it
Changing activity level + lethargy (behaviour)
Disruption to eating behaviour (behaviour)
Disruption to sleeping behaviour (behaviour)
Aggression + self harm (emotional + behaviour)
Lowered mood (emotional)
Lowered self esteem (emotional)
Poor concentration (cognitive)
Absolutist thinking (cognitive)
Attending to amend dwelling on the negative (cognitive)
What are behaviours of depression
Changing activity level + lethargy
Disruption to eating behaviour
Disruption to sleeping behaviour
Aggression + self harm
What are emotions that come with depression
Aggression + self harm
Lowered mood
Lowered self esteem
What cognitive effects happen with depression
Poor concentration
Absolutist thinking
Attending to amend dwelling on the negative
What did Ellis discover and propose
Ellis proposed that the key to mental disorders such as depression lay in irrational thoughts
Ellis said irrational thoughts are thoughts that interfere with us being happy + free of pain
What is an activating event
Ellis focused on situations in which irrational thoughts are triggered by external events
We get depressed when we experience negative events + these trigger irrational beliefs
The activating event is therefore the negative event such as getting fired at work
What are beliefs in Ellis ABC model
You hold a belief about event or situation
This could be rational or irrational
What is a rational belief about not getting a job
The company was over staffed
What are some types of irrational beliefs
Mustabatory thinking
Utopianism
I-can’t-stand-it-it-is
What’s an irrational belief about getting sacked from a Job
I was sacked because they’ve always had it in for me
What is mustabatory thinking
The belief that we must always succeed or achieve perfection
What is Utopianism
The belief life is always meant to be fair
What is I can’t stand-it-it-is
The belief that it is a major disaster when something doesn’t go smoothly
What are consequences in Ellis ABC model and what is most important factor
We have emotional responses to our beliefs
Rational beliefs leads to healthy emotions
Where as irrational beliefs lead to unhealthy emotions
Emotions
What do rational beliefs lead to
Healthy emotions (acceptance)
What do irrational beliefs leads to
Unhealthy emotions (depression)
What is important about the activating event and why does it leads to depression
It triggers an emotion that is seen as true + consequences is that the individual becomes depressed
Because they have a negative view about themselves + no confidence in their ability
People who do not tend towards depression may react completely differently
The difference between depressed + non depressed people is therefore how they perceive themselves
Why is it important how someone views themselves in terms of weather there depressed or not
Negative view about one’s self + no confidence in their ability
People who do not tend towards depression may react completely different
What did beck suggest
That there was a cognitive approach to explaining why some people are more vulnerable to depression than others
What is the most importantly concept in becks negative triad
A persons cognitions create vulnerability (the way that they think)
What are the 3 stages in becks negative triad
Faulty information processing
Negative self schemas
The negative triad
What is faulty information processing and what tends to happen
When depressed we attend to (focus on) negative aspects of a situation
Ignore the positives
We blow small problems out of proportion
Thinking in Black + white
What is a negative self schemas and how can it cause depression
A schema is ‘package of ideas’
Information developed through experience
Is acts as a mental framework for interpretation of sensory information
We use schemas to interpret te world
We have a negative self schema we interpret all information about ourselves in a negative way
What is a self schema
A package of information that we have about ourselves
What is the negative triad and what is it about
When a person develops a dysfunctional view of themselves three types of negative thinking that occur automatically
Regardless of the reality of what is happening at the time
The 3 elements of the negative triad
When we are depressed negative thoughts about ourselves the world + future often come at us
What is negative view of self
Where individuals see themselves as being helpless worthless + inadequate
What are some examples of negative view of self
I am just plain + undesirable
What is there to like
I’m unattractive + seem to bore everyone
What is negative view of the world
Life experiences
Where obstacles are perceived within one’s environment that cannot be dealt with
Examples of negative view of the world
I can understand why people don’t like me
They would prefer someone else’s company
Even my boyfriend left me
What can negative view of self cause
Thoughts enhance existing depressive feelings because they confirm the existing emotions or low self esteem
What can negative view of the world cause
It can create the impression that there is no hope anywhere
What is negative view of the future
Where personal worthlessness is seen as blocking improvements
What are examples of negative view of future
I’m always going to be on my own
There is nothing that is going to change this
What can negative view of the future cause
These thoughts reduce hopefulness + enhance depression
What is CBT
Cognitive behavioural therapy
What is CBT used for
Asses patients to identify irrational thoughts and change them
Why does CBT work
Because behaviour is generated by thinking
Most logical + effective way of changing maladaptive behaviour is to change irrational thinking underlying it
What makes up CBT
Cognitive
Behavioural
What is behavioural used for in CBT
Once irrational thoughts have been identified coping strategies are developed causing a behavioural
What is cognitive used for in CBT
Identify + challenge irrational thoughts
What are the steps to CBT and what are its aims
It challenges thoughts directly
It aims to help patients test the reality of negative beliefs
They might be set homework
Why are patients set homework in CBT and what is and how do they do homework in CBT
They record when they enjoy an event where people are nice to them
And researcher can use homework to prove irrational belief isn’t real
Why is there a patient scientist in CBT
Because the patient investigates the reality of their negative beliefs in the way a scientist would
Why is homework useful for future sessions
If patients say that no one is nice to them there is no point going to events
Therapist can produce this evidence + use it to prove the patients statements are incorrect
What are key elements of CBT
Identify irrational thoughts
Challenging irrational thoughts direct questioning
More rational thoughts lead to the effect of feeling better (overcome)
Behavioural activation
Why does challenging irrational thoughts do anything in CBT
Dispute using evidence to contradict the clients irrational thoughts
What is REBT
Rational emotive behaviour therapy
How does REBT work and what do you do
It works by identifying and challenging irrational thoughts
It shows clients how irrational their thoughts are and replacing them with more effective and rational beliefs
What does each letter stand for in Ellis ABCDE
D = disputing irrational thoughts
E = effect
What are the two types of disputing
Logical
Empirical
How does REBT disput
Therapist directly questioning client
What is logical disputing
Involves therapist challenging irrational thoughts to show they do not logically follow from information available from fact
What is a example of logical disputing
Does it make sense that if our friend doesn’t text us back straight away they hate us
What is empirical disputing and what do they do during it
Involves therapist challenging irrational thoughts to show that they might not be consistent with reality
The therapist would also present evidence to act as a counterargument
An example of empirical disputing and how a therapist would use a counterargument on them
Where is thee evidence that the thought you have no friends is accurate
Messages from friends that are asking the person to come to dinner with them
What is the intended effect of disputing
To change irrational thoughts + break the link between negative life events and depression
Changing thoughts therefore leading to healthier emotions and symptoms of depression are alleviated
When are clients told to do homework or complete
Between therapy sessions
What homework might a client receive
Asking someone out on a date
Looking for a new job
Asking a friend to tell them what they really think of them
What is the homework usual based on
A fear the person usually has
Mostly rejection
Why is homework important in the ABCDE model
Homework is vital in testing thoughts against reality and puts new rational beliefs into practice
What does CBT involve to Cause behavioural activation
CBT usually involves specific focus on encouraging depressed clients to become more active and engage in pleasure activities
What is behavioural activation based on
It is based on the common-sense idea
That being active leads to rewards that act as an antidote to depression
What is the comman sense idea
That being active leads to rewards that act as an antidote to depression
What do these activities provide for a person
Such activities provide more evidence of the irrational nature of a clients thoughts
What is preparedness and who came up with it
The innate pre disposition to acquire certain fears
What is obsessive compulsive disorder( OCD)
A mental disorder characterised by obsession and/or compulsive behaviour
What is behavioural
A way in which people act
What is emotional
A way in which people feel
What is cognitive
A way in which people think
What is the biological approach
A perspective which emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural function
What is a genetic explanation
Genes make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism (eye colour or height) and psychological features (such as mental disorders or intelligence)
Genes are transmitted from parents to offspring (inherited)
What is inherited
Genes are transmitted from parents to offspring
What is a neural explanations
The view that physical and psychological characteristics are determined by the behaviour of the nervous system
In particular the brain as well as individual neuron’s
What are characteristics of OCD
Hyper vigilance (cognitive)
Catastrophic thinking(cognitive)
Insight into excessive anxiety (cognitive)
Cognitive strategies to deal with anxiety (cognitive)
Obsessive thoughts (cognitive)
Disgust (emotion)
Guilt (emotion)
Anxiety (emotion)
Accompanying depression (emotion)
Compulsion (behaviour)
Avoidance (behaviour)
What characteristics of OCD are cognitive
Hyper vigilance
Catastrophic thinking
Insight into excessive anxiety
Cognitive strategies to deal with anxiety
Obsessive thoughts
What characteristics of OCD are emotions
Disgust
Guilt
Anxiety
Accompanying depression
What characteristics of OCD are behaviour
Compulsion
Avoidance
What is OCD
Anxiety order characterised by obsessive thinking and repetitive behaviours
What makes up OCD
Obsession and compulsion
What causes OCD
Low serotonin
High dopamine
What is obsession
Internal components of OCD because they are intrusive thoughts (something you think)
What is compulsion
External component of OCD because they are repetitive behaviours (something you do) reduce anxiety
What are the neural explanation of OCD
Abnormal levels of neurotransmitters
Abnormal brain circuits
What are neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are responsible for relaying information from one neuron to another
Why are neuro transmitters important in explaining OCD
One of the key neurotransmitters which may influence OCD are serotonin
What are the neuron transmitters that can cause OCD
Serotonin And dopamine
What is serotonin
Is a neurotransmitter though to be involved in mood regulation
How can serotonin cause OCD
If a person has low levels of serotonin then normal transmission of mood-relevant information does not take place
Sometimes other mental process are effected
What is dopamine
A separate neurotransmitter thought to be involved mainly with motivational salience
Regulating the intensity of behaviours which facilitate the attainment of a specific goal
How does dopamine cause OCD
If dopamine levels abnormally high in those with OCD
The higher dopamine the higher the intensity
What are the components of an abnormal brain circuits
OFC
Thalamus
Caudate nucleus
What is OFC and what does it do
Sends signal to the thalamus about things that are worrying
What is the thalamus and what does it do
Leads to impulse to act and then to stop activity when the impulse lessens
What is a caudate nucleus and what does it do
Normally suppress signals from the OFC
If damaged it fails to do this and so the thalamus is alerted about minor ‘worry’ signals
It sends signals back to the OFC acting as a worry circuit
What are the genetic explanations for OCD
The COMT gene
The SERT gene
What does the COMT gene do
In turn COMT regulates the production of the neurotransmitter dopamine that has been implicated in OCD
What is the COMT gene
It produces catechol-O-methyltransferase
How is COMT related to OCD
All genes come in different forms(alleles) and one form of the COMT gene has been found to be more common in OCD patients than people without the disorder
What does the SERT gene do
Affects the transport of serotonin creating lower levels of the neurotransmitter
These lower levels are implicated in OCD
What is the SERT gene also known as as
5-HTT
What is co morbidity
Having two disorders together
What is SSRIs
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
What is SSRI used for
Standard medical treatment used to tackle symptoms of OCD
What does SSRI involve
Involves a particular type of antidepressant drug called selective reuptake inhibitors
What does SSRIs work on
SSRI works on the serotonin system of the Brain
In what order does SSRIs help the process of neurotransmitters of serotonin
- Serotonin is released by certain neurons in the brain
- Serotonin is released by the presynaptic neuron’s and travel across the synapse
- Serotonin binds to the receptor sites on the post-synaptic neuron’s and
conveys the signal from the pre-synaptic neuron to the post synaptic neuron - Serotonin is reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron where it is broken down and reused
- SSRIs prevents the reabsorption and breakdown of serotonin
- This effectively increases the levels of serotonin in the synapse and they continue to stimulate the post synaptic neuron’s
- This compensates for whatever is wrong with the serotonin system in OCD
