Psychology 16 Markers Flashcards
What is a PEEL paragraph for why temporal validity was a weakness for Asch’s theory
P:
A weakness of Asch’s study/research is that it was a ‘child of its time’ and lacked temporal validity
E:
The 1950 was a conformist era
E:
Spencer and Perrin redid Asch’s theory and only one conformed response was given in 396 trails
L:
This is a limitation of Asch’s study because the findings are not consistent through out time
What is a PEEL paragraph for why Asch’s study only applies in certain situations
P:
a weakness of asch’s study is that it only applies in certain situation
E:
Conformity may have been lower to dueto them being strangers
E:
Sogan found that conformity was higher when majority were friends
L:
This is a limitation of Asch’s study because we cannot generalise this results to general life
A peel paragraph about how asch’s experiment was done in an artificial situation
P:
A weakness of aschs study was it was an artificial situation
E:
PPs knew they were being study so demand characteristics
E:
Friske stated that aschs studies weren’t very groupy and didn’t resemble everyday experiences
L:
A limitation of aschs study is we can’t generalise results to real situation
A peel paragraph about how asch’s study was about only on gender or culture
P:
A weakness of asch’s study was he did it in one culture and one gender
E:
He only tested male participants
E:
Bond and smith did the same Neto test in 1995 women care more about relationships then men
L:
A limitation of aschs study is we don’t have information about other genders or culture to generalise the results
A peel paragraph about how asch’s study had ethical issues
P:
A weakness in asch’s study was its ethical issues
E:
Deceived/deception of PPs
E:
Didn’t know true intentions of experiment didn’t know people were confederates
L:
But this is justified as no one was harmed in this experiment
Write a peel paragraph about behaviour being learned
P:
Behaviour can be learnt
E:
Pavlov + skinner demonstrate behaviour can be learned
E:
Through there experiments outline skinners rats and Pavlov dogs
L:
This is a strength of behaviourism
A peel paragraph about the token system
P:
Operant conditioning is effective because it has been used to create a token system in prisons
E:
This shows operant conditioning works
E:
Because it has been applied to a practical application and works in the real world
L:
This is a strength
A peel paragraph about experimental methods
P:
Operant conditioning is effective because skinner used an experimental method
E:
Skinner was objective, systematic and reliable(S(RIV)OR)
E:
Skinner could get precise data and the experiment could be repeated
L:
This is a strength
A peel paragraph about behaviourism being deterministic
P:
Behaviourism is deterministic
E:
This means it ignores thoughts and feelings and free will
E:
This removes the human element of chances from a human subject
L:
This a weaknesses
a peel paragraph about research supporting for NSI
P:
There is a further research support for NSI
E:
Asch’s conducted another variation study where PPa had to write there answers out
E:
Conformity fell to 12.5%
L:
Supports NSI as their was no pressure to fit in
A Peel paragraph about individual differences in NSI
P:
There are individual difference in NSI
E:
Some people want to be liked more then others (Nafiliators)
E:
McGhee + teevan discovered those who were Nafiliators were more likely to conform
L:
This links to NSI because they want to be approved
A peel paragraph about further research support for ISI
P:
There is further research support for ISI
E:
Gave maths problems
E:
Lucas made the questions harder and found conformity increased
L:
This links to ISI because they didn’t wanna be incorrect
A peel paragraph about individual difference in ISI
P:
There are individual differences in ISI
E:
Asch’s found that students where only had a 28% chance to conform where other PPs had a 37% chance of conforming
E:
Spencer + Perrin found almost no conformity
L:
Therefore not everyone will conform in the situation
A peel paragraph about distinguished between NSI and ISI
P:
It is difficult to distinguish between NSI and ISI
E:
Through aschs study
E:
Conformity decreases when there is a diffenter it could be due to ISI + NSI
L:
It is hard to separate ISI + NSI because they work together in real life
A peel paragraph about Pavlov and skinner being unrealisable
P:
Pavlov and skinner are unrealisable because they used animals
E:
Th Dogs are creatures in both experiments have different brains
E:
The results cannot be generalised
L:
This could be a weakness but also a strength because it shows it works on many species so it could work on humans
A peel paragraph about how SLT takes into account cognitive process
P:
SLT accounts are cognitive process
E:
Recognises the role of meditational process in learning
E:
Classical + operant conditioning therefore cannot account for all learning process
L:
This is a strength
A peel paragraph about how SLT underestimates the cultural differences in behaviour
P:
SLT underestimates the cultural differences in behaviour
E:
Individualist + collectivist
E:
Social learning principle can account for how children learn from people around them
This helps us understand a range of behaviours
L:
This is a strength
A peel paragraph about how SLT is less deterministic than the behaviourist approach
P:
The behaviourist approach is less determinative than the behaviourist approach
E:
We are not only influenced by our external environment
E:
We have choices suggesting that we have free will in how we behave
L:
This is a strength
A peel paragraph about how SLT relies on lab studies
P:
SLT relies heavily on lab experiments
E:
Bandoros experiment were conducted in a lab environment no living contrived situation (contrived situation)
E:
Therefore the research may not generalised to real life
L:
This is a weakness
A peel paragraph about how SLT underestimates the influence of biological factors
P:
SLT underestimates the influence of biological factos on behaviour
E:
Bandaura makes little reference to the impact of biological factors
E:
Differences in level of testosterone a hormone linked to aggression is presented in greater quantities in boys then girls
L:
This is a weakness
A peel paragraph about control over variables
P:
One strength is that there were control over variables
E:
He selected physically + mentally stable individuals and assigned them to random roles
E:
This rulers out individual differences
L:
This is a strength because it increases validity
A peel paragraph about how PPS acted realistically
P:
PPS acted realistically
E:
90% of the prisioners conversation were about prision life
E:
McDermott they behaved Like it was a real prison
L:
This is a strength because they really though it was a prison
A peel paragraph about how the experiment lack realism
P:
One weakness is lack of realism
E:
PPS performed as they though a prison guard would
E:
Banuoziz + movahidi agreed PPS acted instead of conforming to there social roles
L:
This is a weakness because they acted instead of conforming
A peel paragraph about how there are contradictory theories/findings
P:
There are contradictory theories/findings
E:
Reicher + haslam repeated SPE and found gaurds + prisoners didn’t conform to their roles
E:
They suggested an alternative explanation where guards actively identify with their roles to conform
L:
Social identity theory may be a better explanation
A peel paragraph about how he exaggerated the roles
P:
Exaggerated the power of roles
E:
He associated the results of a couple of gaurds to all of them
E:
2/3 of the guards were nice to the prisoners
L:
This is a weakness because he ignored some human behaviours which decreased validity
A PEEL paragraph about cognitive approach uses scientific + objective methods
P:
The cognitive approach uses scientific + objective methods
E:
A lot of the experiments are controlled lab experiments
E:
Cog neuro science uses a lot of high accuracy measuring equipment to demonstrate brain activity
L:
This is a strength P
A PEEL paragraph about the cognitive approach does have application
P:
The cognitive approach does have application
E:
Has been applied to a wide range of practical and theoretical context
E:
Cognitive psychology has made an important contribution in the field of AI and developing thinking machines
L:
This is a strength
A PEEL paragraph about the cognitive being less deterministic than other approaches
P:
Cognitive approach is less deterministic than other approaches
E:
Recognises that our cognitive system can only operate within the limits we know
E:
We are free to think before responding to stimulus leaving space for humans emotions
L:
This is a strength
A PEEL paragraph about the cognitive approach using machine reductionism
P:
The cognitive approach uses machine reductionism
E:
Machine reductionism ignores the influences of human emotions + motivation
E:
Research has found that human memory may be affected by emotional factors such as the influence of anxiety on eye witness
L:
This is a weakness
A PEEL paragraph about how the cognitive approach doesn’t applied to everyday life
P:
The cognitive approach doesn’t apply to everyday life
E:
We are only able to infer
As a consequence the cognitive approach sometimes suffered from being too abstract + theoretical in nature
E:
Mental process are often carried out using artificial stimulus such as tert memory inolving(words + lists) may not represent everyday memory experiences
L:
This lacks external validity (weakness)
A peel paragraph for how milgrams study is replicable
P:
Milgrams findings were replicated in reality TV documentary
E:
That was made about behaviours there was a french game show called game of death
E:
80% of the participants delivered a maximum 460 V to an unconscious man
L:
This is a strength because it shows people listen to obedience no matter the situation
A peel paragraph about how milgrams study was repeated
P:
Milgrams study was repeated by Sheridan + king
E:
All students gave real shocks to puppy
E:
54% of men and 100% of women gave fatal shocks
L:
This supports the claims that the shock was genuine because people were obedient with it
A peel paragraph that Milgrams producers may not have done what was intended
P:
Milgrams producers may not have been testing what he intended
E:
75% of them believed it was real
E:
Orne + Holland said the PPs were play acting and dint believe the set up
L:
This shows it might have been due to demand characteristics
A peel paragraph about ethical issues of milgrams study
P:
There are ethical issues with milgrams study
E:
Diana Baumrind (1964) criticised milgram
E:
She believed deception in psychology study’s can cause serious consequences for people involved
L:
This is a weakness
A peel paragraph about how the danger of situational perspective in milgrams study
P:
There are danger of situational perspective
E:
Milgram is suggesting the Natiz were simply obeying orders
E:
Mandel argues it leaves an excuse or alibi for evil behaviour
L:
This is a weakness because it ignores individual differences
A peel paragraph about limitated explanation for the agentic shift
P:
A limitation of the agentic shift is that it is a limited explanation
E:
Rank + jacobsons found that 16 out of the 18 nurses disobeyed orders to give excessive drugs
E:
The doctor was an obvious authority figure but the nurses stayed autonomous so did not support milgrams study
L:
This shows agentic shift only accounts for certain situations
A peel paragraph about obedience alibis for the agentic shift
P:
Another limitation of the agentic shift is obedience alibi
E:
Mandel says ww2 reserve police battalion 101
E:
The men shot many civilians despite not having direct orders to
L:
They behaved autonomously
A peel paragraph about how legitimacy of authority cannot explain all disobedience
P:
A limitation of legitimacy of authority is that it cannot explain all disobedience
E:
Ranks + jacobsons a lot of them were disobedient dispite working in a hierarchical authority structure the same happed in milgrams study
E:
Some people are more or less likely to obey then others innate tendencies have a greater effect on obedience then legitimacy
L:
This is a weakness
A peel paragraph about how legitimacy explanation is that it cannot explain explain cultural differences
P:
A strength of legitimacy explanation is that it can explain cultural differences
E:
Killian + Mann found 16% of Australian women gave the 450v shock in milgrams study
E:
Mantell found German participants 85% gave 450v in some cultures authority is more likely to be accepted as a reason for obedience
L:
This reflects how different societies have different structured and the level of obedience
A peel paragraph about how legitimacy authority is that it can explain real world crimes
P:
Another strength of legitimate authority is that it can explain real world crimes
E:
Kilmen + kemlton argue real world crimes of obedience can be understood in terms of power of hierarchy
E:
Us army and commanding officers operate within clear legitimate hierarchy the hospital doctors have greater power to punish
L:
This is a strength
A peel paragraph about how obedient participants had a number of characteristics unusual for authoritarianism
P:
Obedient participants had a number of characteristics that were unusual for authoritarianism
E:
Unlike Milgrams participants
E:
They generally didn’t glorify there fathers didn’t experience unusual levels of punishment during childhood also didn’t show hostile attitudes towards there mother
L:
The link between obedience and authority is complex
A peel paragraph about limited explanation and cannot explain obedient behaviour in other countries
P:
Limited explanation cannot explain obedient behaviour in other countries
E:
Pre war Germany millions of individuals displayed obedient and anti semantic behaviour
E:
There are differences in their personal;ties it seems unlikely they all possessed an authoritarian personality
L:
This is a weakness because it doesn’t rake into account alternative interpretations
A peel paragraph about limitation of the f-scale and its tendencies towards extreme right wing ideologies
P:
A limitation of the f-scale is it only measures tendencies towards extreme right wing ideologies
E:
Christie + jaheda argued that the f-scale is politically biased of authoritarian personalities
E:
There is left wing authoritarianism in Russian + china but they both take into account complete obedience
L:
This is a weakness as it doesn’t take into account for other ideas on the political spectrum on dispositional factors
A peel paragraph about the California f-scale has a problem
P:
The California f-scale has a problem
E:
Greenstein said the f-scale had a comedy of methodological errors
E:
It is possible to get a high score by just agreeing (anyone with response bias)
L:
This is a weakness because the way it is measured is unreliable
A peel paragraph bout how social influence has a positive effect
P:
One strength is research evidence for positive effect of social influence
E:
Albrecht evaluated a 8 week programme to help pregnant adolescent teens aged 14-19 resist peer pressure to smoking
E:
Social support was provided by someone slightly older or a ‘buddy’
At the end of the programme those who had a ‘buddy’ were significantly less likely to smoke than a control group who didn’t have a ‘buddy’
L:
This shows that social support can help young people resist social influence as part of an intervention in the real world
A peel paragraph about how Allen and Levine showed social support can help and it do dent have to be valid
P:
A study by Allen and Levine showed that social support can help individuals to resist the influence of a group
E:
In as asch-type task when dissenter was some with apparently good eyesight 64% of genuine participants refused to conform
E:
When there was no support at all only 3% of participants resisted
L:
However the study also showed social support does not always help this because when the dissenter had obviously poor eyesight (thick glasses) resistance was only 36%
A peel paragraph about how there is contradictory research for LOC
P:
There is contradictory research one limitation is evidence that challenges the link between LOC and resistance
E:
Twinge analysed data from American locusts studies conducted over 40 year period
The data showed that over this time span people became more resistant to obedience but also more external
E:
This is a surprising outcome if resistance is linked to an internal LOC we should expect people to become more internal
L:
This suggests that Locus of control is not a valid explanation of how people resist social influence
A peel paragraph about how there are limited roles of LOC many studies
P:
There are limited roles of LOC many studies show that having man internal LOC is linked with being able to resist social influences
E:
Rotter points out that LOC is not necessarily the most important factor wether someone resists social influence
E:
Locks depend on the situation a persons LOC is only significantly affects there behaviour in new situations
If you have conformed or obeyed in a specific situation in the past the chances are you will do so again in the same situation regardless of weather you have a high internal LOC or high external LOC
L:
LOC is not a valid explanation of how people resist social influences
A peel paragraph about the psychodynamic approach having good explanatory power
P:
Freud theories have good explanatory power
E:
Despite being bizarre Freuds theories do give good explanations for a wide range of behaviours
E:
Especially in relation to how events in childhood influence behaviours in later life’s
L:
This is a strength
A PEEL paragraph about how the psychodynamic approach has practical application
P:
Psychodynamic approach has practical application
E:
Employed a range of techniques designed to access the unconscious such as hypnosis + dream analysis
E:
Psychoanalysis is the fore runner to many modern day psychotherapies that have since been established
L:
This is a strength
A PEEL paragraph about how the psychodynamic approach only uses one individuals who were often in therapy
P:
Freud theories was based on intensive study of single individuals who were of in therapy(little Hans)
E:
Although Freud observations were detailed + carefully recorded
Critics have suggested that it is not possible to make unusual claims about humans
Nature based on studies of such small numbers of individuals who were psychologically abnormal
E:
Freud interpretations were highly subjective it is unlikely in the case of little hans
That any other researcher would have drawn the same conclusion
L:
Freud method lacks scientific rigour
A PEEL paragraph about how the psychodynamic approach does not meet scientific criterion of falsification
P:
The psychodynamic approach does not meet scientific criterion of falsification
E:
Not open to empirical testing (and possibility of being disproved)
Freud concepts (such as id + Oedipus complex) are said to occur at an unconscious level
E:
Making them difficult if not impossible to test
L:
Psychodynamic theory has a status of pseudoscience rather than real science
A peel paragraph about how the psychodynamic approach has practical application as a weakness
P:
Psychodynamic approach has practical application
E:
Although Freudian therapists have claimed success with patients suffering from mild neuroses
E:
Psychoanalysis has been criticised as inappropriate even harmful for people suffering more serious mental disorders
L:
This is a weakness
A peel paragraph about how the psychodynamic approach is physical determinism
P:
Physical determinism(no such thing as a accident)
E:
Something as random as a ‘slip of the tongue’ is driven by unconscious forces + has deep symbolic meaning
E:
The psychodynamic approach explains all behaviour even accidents as determined by unconscious conflicts that are rooted in childhood such that any free will we think we have is an illusion
L:
This is a weakness
A peel paragraph about how minority influence has further research for flexibility
P:
There is further research for flexibility
E:
Nemeth + brillimayer they did a mock jury study where a group had to decide on compensation to be paid to someone in a ski lift accident
E:
Found the confederate who was flexible was able to influence the minority
L:
Supports the role of flexibility in minority influence
A peel paragraph about how there is evidence showing that a change in the majority does involve deeper process of minority ideas
P:
Another strength is evidence showing that a change in the majority does involve deeper process of minority ideas
E:
Martian presented a message supporting a particular view point + measures participants agreement
One group of PPs heard a minority group agree with initial view with another group heard a majority agree with initial view
E:
The PPs were exposed to a conflicting view + attitude
View + attitude were measured again people were less willing to change their opinions if they had listened to the minority group than if they had listened to a majority group
L:
This suggest that a minority’s message is more deeply processed + had a more enduring effect this supports the argument about minority influences work
A peel paragraph about how minority influence has limited real world application
P:
There is limited real world application
E:
Makes a clear distraction between minorities + how majorities by doing it in a controlled environment
Real world social influence is more complicated
Majorities usually have more power + status than minorities
E:
Minorities are very committed to their cause they have been because they often face very hostile opposition
These features are usually absent from minority influence research the minority is simply the smallest group
L:
Very limited in what they can tell us about min orbits influence in real world situations
A peal paragraph about how there is a limitation of minority influence is that they are done in artificial settings like arch line judgment task
P:
One limitation of minority influence is that they are done in artificial settings like asch line judgment task
E:
Moscovis is task of identify colour slides
Researchers therefore far removed from how minorities attempt to change the behaviour if majorities in real life
E:
In cases such as jury decisions making + political campaigning the outcomes are vastly more important sometimes life or death
L:
This means finding of minority influence studies re lacking external validity and are limited in what they can tell us about minority influence in real world situations
A peel paragraphs about minority influence is quite rare + not very useful concept
P:
Minority influence is quite rare + not very useful concept
E:
When PPs wrote down there answers privately they were more likely to agree with minority view
E:
This suggests that the view expressed by the people in public was just the tip of the iceberg
L:
This is a weakness
A peel paragraph about the humanistic approach is holistic
P:
Humanistic approach is holistic
E:
Other approaches attempt to explain behaviour in more basic ways
Stimulus - response / ID, Ego , super ego / neurotransmitters
For science
E:
Humanistic instead considers the human as a whole making it a More ecological valid approach
L:
This is a strength
A peel paragraph about humanistic psychology has been praised for ‘bribing the person back into the psychology + promotes a positive image of the human condition
P:
Humanistic psychology has been praised for ‘brining the person back into the psychology’ + promotes a positive image of the human condition
E:
Freud Sam human beings as slaves to their past + claimed all of us existed between
‘Comman unhappiness + absolute despair’
E:
Humanistic psychology offers a refreshing + optimistic alternative it sees all people as basically good free to work towards the achievement of their potential + in control of their lives
L:
This is a strength
A peel paragraph about the humanistic that a limited application in the real world
P:
There is limited application in real world
E:
Rogerion therapy has revolutionised counselling techniques + Maslow heirchy of needs has been used to explain motivations particularly in the workplace
E:
It remains the case that the approach has had limited impact within the discipline of psychology as a whole
This may in part be due to humanistic psychology lacking a sound evidence
L:
Also due to the fact that the approach has been described not as comprehensive theory
As a loose set of rather abstract theories
A peel paragraph about the humanistic approach being unstable
P:
Unstable concepts (abstract + difficult to test)
E:
Concepts such as ‘self actualisation’ + ‘congruence’ may be useful therapeutic tools
But would prove problematic to asses under experimental conditions
E:
Roger did attempt to introduce ,ore rigour into his work by developing the Q-sort am objective measures of progress in therapy
L:
As it is an anti-scientific approach humanistic psychology is short on empirical evidence to support its claims
A peel about how humanistic psychology such as freedom autonomy + personal growth + associated with individualists cultures
P:
Humanistic psychology such as freedom autonomy + personally growth + associated with individual cultures
E:
Collectivist cultures such as India which emphasise the needs of the group community + interdependence
E:
May not identify so easily with the ideals + values of humanistic psychology
L:
It is possible that this approach would not travel well + is a product of the cultural context within which it was developed
A peel paragraphs about how social change is research for supporting for NSI leading to social change
P:
There is research support for NSI leading to social change
E:
Nolan et al investigated whether social influence processes led to a reduction in energy consumption by hanging messages on the front doors of houses saying residents were trying to reduce renege usage
E:
Found significantly decrease in energy usage ( compared to control group which was just asked to save energy )
L:
This supports the role of NSI in social change increases the validity of the theory
A peel paragraph about how psychologists can explain how minority influence can bring about social change
P:
A strength is that psychologists can explain how minority influence can bring about socail change
E:
Nemeth claims social change is due to the type of thinking that minorities inspire when people consider minority argumentes they engage in divergent thinking
E:
This type of thinking is broad rather than narrow in which thinker actively search for information + weights up more options
Nemeth argues this leads to better decisions + more creative soluciona to social issues
L:
This shows why dissenting minorities are valuable they stimulate new ideas + open ones in a way that majorities cannot
A peel paragraph about how some studies show peoples behaviours is not always changed through social norms
P:
Some studies show peoples behaviours is not Always changed through social norms
E:
Foxcorft reviewed social norms interventions as part of Cochran collaboration
E:
There were 70 studies where the social norms approach was used to reduce student alcohol use
There was only a small reduction in drinking quantity + no effect on drinking frequency
L:
It seems that using normative social influence does not always produce long term social change
A peel paragraph abut how deeper processing may not pl;ay a role in minorities bringing about socail changes
P:
One limitation is that deeper processing may not play a role in how minorities bring about social change
E:
Some people’s behaviours are supposedly converted because they think more deeply about minority views
Mackie disagrees with + presents evidence that it is majority influence that may create deeper processing if we don’t share their views
E:
This is because we like to believe other people share our views + think the same way as us
When we find that a majority believes something different then we are forced to think long + hard about it
L:
This means that a central element of minority influence has been challenged showing lower validity
A peel paragraph about how there are barriers to social change
P:
There are barriers to social change
E:
Bashier the fact is that people still resist to socail change
Found that participants were less likely to behave in environmentally friendly ways
Because they didn’t want to be associated with stereotypic + minority environmental
E:
Minority environmental activities in negative ways
Despite resistance the researchers were still able to suggests ways in which a minority can overcome barriers to socail change
L:
This is a weakness because it s very hard to cause and it happens slowly
A peel paragraph about how infant caregiver interactions were observed and often filmed
P:
One Strength is that observations are often filmed
E:
Activities that would distract a baby can be controlled
Using film means that observations can be recorded + analysed later
More then one researcher can observe can record data
E:
This gives inter-rather reliability of observation
Babies don’t know they are being observed so their behaviour doesn’t change in response to observation
L:
Therefore the data collected in such research should have good reliability + validity
A peel paragraph about how there are other lines of research that suggest early interactions are important
P:
There is evidence from other lines of research that suggest early interactions are important
E:
Isabella found that achievement of interactional synchrony
E:
Predicted development of a good quality attachment
L:
This means that balance caregiver infant interaction is probably important in development
A peel paragraph about how caregiver infant interactions suggest there is further research that suggests intentionality
P:
There is further research that suggests intentionality
E:
Abravanel + deyong observed infant behaviour when interacting with objects stimulating movements
E:
They found infants made little response to the object suggesting infants don’t imitate anything they see
L:
This increasing the theories validity that caregiver - infant interactions are important/special
A peel paragraph about how there a problems observing babies
P:
One limitation is that there are problems observing babies
E:
Young babies lack co-ordination + much of their body is immobile
The movements being observed are just small hand movements or subtle changes in expression
It is difficult to be sure
E:
Weather a baby is smiling or just passing wind
It is difficult to determine what is taking place from the baby’s perspective
We cannot know weather a movement such as hand twitch is random or triggered by something the caregiver does
L:
This means that we cannot be certain from observational research alone that reciprocity + synchrony are imprint at for a child’s development
A peel paragraph about how observing behaviour does not tell us its development importance
P:
One further limitation is simply observing a behaviour does not tell us its development importance
E:
Feldman points out ideas like synchrony simply giving names to patterns of observable caregiver + baby behaviours
E:
Robust phenomena in the sense that they can be reliably observed
Still many not be particularly useful in understanding child development as it does not tell us the purpose of these behaviours
L:
This means that we cannot be certain from observational research alone that reciprocity + synchrony aré important for a child’s development
A peel paragraph about how Schaffer + Emerson research is that it has good external validity
P:
One strength of Schaffer + Emerson’s research is that it has good external validity
E:
Most of the observations (though not stranger anxiety) were made by the parents during ordinary activities + reported to researchers
The alternative would have been to have researchers present to record observations
E:
This might have distracted the babies or made them feel more anxious
L:
This means it is highly likely that the participants behaved naturally while being observed
A peel paragraph about how Schaffer + Emerson’s stages have practical application in day care
P:
Another strength of Schaffer + Emerson’s stages is that they have practical application in day care
E:
Asocial + indescribable attachment stages day care is likely to be straight forward as babies can be comforted by any skilled adult
E:
Schaffer + Emerson research’s tell us that day care especially starting day care with an unfamiliar adult may be problematic during specific attachment stages
L:
This means parents use of day care can be planned using Schaffer + Emerson’s stages
A peel paragraph about how Schaffer + Emerson’s study is there are issues asking the mother to observers
P:
One limitation of Emerson + schaffers study is there are issues asking the mother to be observers
E:
It was unlikely to be objective observers
They may have been biased in terms of what they noticed + was reported
E:
They might not have noticed their baby was showing signs of anxiety or may have misremembered it
L:
This means that even babies behaved naturally their behaviour may not have been accurately recorded
A peel paragraph about Schaffer + Emerson’s using valid measure to asses attachment in asocial stage
P:
One limitation of Schaffer + Emerson’s stages is that validity of the measure they are used to asses attachment in asocial stage
E:
Young babies have poor co-ordination and are fairly immobile
If babies less than two months old felt anxiety in everyday situations they might have displayed in quite subtle hard to observe ways
E:
This made it difficult for mothers to observe + report back to researchers on signs of anxiety + attachment in these age groups
L:
It means that babies may avctually quite socail but because of flawed methods they appear asocial
A peel paragraph about how Schaffer + Emerson’s study has generalisability issues
P:
One limitation of Schaffer + Emerson’s study is that there are generalisability issues
E:
Only studies one sample from working class area of Glasgow in 1960
E:
Van ijzendoorn suggests multiple attachments from much earlier in collectivist cultures
L:
This means that Schaffer + Emerson’s finding may not generalised to other population/today
A peel paragraph about how there are limitation of researchers into the role of farther is that findings vary according to methodology
P:
A further limitation of researchers into the role o farther is that findings vary according to methodology
E:
Longitudinal studies such as gross man’s suggests that farther as a secondary attachment figure have an important + distinct role in children’s development involving play + stimulation
E:
If farthers have distinctive + important roles we would expect that children growing in a single mother or lesbian-parents families would turn out in some way different from those in two parent families
Studies by mccallum + golombok consistently show that these children do not develop differently from children in two parent heterosexual families
L:
This means that the question of weather farther have a distinctive role remains unanswered
A peel paragraph about how the lines of research may conflict in role of the farther
P:
These lines or research may not be conflict
E:
It could be that farthers typically take on distinctive roles in two parent heterosexual families
E:
But parents in single mother + lesbian parents simply adapt to accomadate the role played by farthers
This means that the questions of a distinctive role for farthers is clear after all
L:
When present farther tend to adopt distinctive roles but families adapt to not having a farther
A peel paragraph about how research into the role of the farther is that it can be used to offer advice to parents
P:
One strength of research into the role of the farther is that it can be used to offer advice to parents
E:
Parents + prospective parents sometimes agonise over decisions like who should take on the primary caregiver role
Some this can even mean worrying about weather to have children at all
E:
Mothers may feel pressured to stay at home because of stereotypical views of mothers + farthers roles
Farther may be pressured to focus on work rather than parenting
Some families this may be pressured to focus on work rather than parenting some families this may not be economically the best solution
Research into role of the farther offers resuming advice to parents
A farther can be the primary attachment figure
Not having a farther does not cause children to come out differently
L:
This means that parental anxiety about role of farther can be reduced
A peel paragraph about how Lorenzs research is the existence of support for the concept of imprinting
P:
One strength of lorenz research is the existence of support for the concept of imprinting
E:
Regolin + vallortigara supports lorens idea of imprinting
Chickens were exposed to simple shape combinations that moved such as triangle with a rectangle in front of it
E:
A range of shape combinations were then moved in front of them and they followed the original most closely
L:
This supports the view that young animals are born with an innate mechanism to imprint on a moving object present in the critical window of development
A peel paragraph about how Harlows research is important because it has real world application
P:
One strength of Harlows research is its important real world application
E:
It has helped social workers + clinical psychologists understand that a lack of bonding experience may be a risk factor in a child development allowing them to intervene to prevent poor outcomes
E:
We also now understand understand the importance of attachment figures for baby monkeys in zoos + breeding programmes in the wild
L:
This means that the value of Harlows research is not just theoretical but also practical
A peel paragraph about how harlow + Lorenz study/research is the ability to generalise finding + conclusions from monkeys + birds to humans
P:
One limitation of Harlow + Lorenz study/reserach is the ability to generalise finding + conclusions from monkeys + birds to humans
E:
The mammal attachment system is quite different + more complex than that in birds
The mammal attachment is a two way process so it is not just young who become attached to their young
E:
Rhesus monkeys monkeys are much similar to humans than Lorene’s birds + all mammals hare some common attachment behaviours
Human brains + human behaviour is still more complex than that of monkeys
L:
This means that it may not be appropriate to generalise Harlows + Lorentz ideas/findings to humans
A peel paragraph about how there are supporting/contradictory research in animal attachment
P:
Supporting/contradictory research
E:
Guiton (1966) found chicks imprinted on a rubber gloves even tried to mate with them
E:
However they found it can be reversed chicks engaged in normal sexual behaviour when exposed to other chickens
L:
Therefore original theory is limited
A peel paragraph about the learning theory being plausible
P:
Learning theory is a plausible theory
E:
Provides adequate explanation how attachment from reinforcement + associations
E:
Although food may not be central to attachment it is likely conditioning plays a part in
L:
Therefore learning theory may still be useful to understanding formation of attachment
A peel paragraph about how the learning theory is overly reductionist
P:
The theory is overly reductionist
E:
Overemphasis on food
E:
Doesn’t take into account other factors - reciprocity
L:
Alternative - bowlbys monotonic theory
A peel paragraph about alternative explanations for attachment
P:
There are alternative explanations for attachment
E:
Hay + respo suggests that parents teach children to love them by demonstrating(modelling) attachment behaviours
E:
Parents reinforce love behaviour by showing approval when babies display own attachment behaviour
L:
Slt has further advantage that it is based around two - way interaction between baby and+ adult fit better with respect to important acne of reciprocity
A peel paragraph about how bowlbys theory has real world application
P:
A strength is the real life applications
E:
Bowlbys theory has had a profound influence
E:
Parenting programmes + adoption practices where they use a key worker
L:
This increases validity
A peel paragraph about how bowlbys concept is overly deterministic
P:
A weakness is that some of the concepts are overly deterministic
E:
The consequences of not forming attachment during critical period
E:
Koluchova reported a case study of the Czech twins who suffered abuse until the age of 7 but recovered fully
L:
Sensitive period may be a more appropriate idea/term
A peel paragraph about how its socially sensitive controversial
P:
A weakness is that it’s socially sensitive controversial
E:
Idea of monotropy puts a burden on parents (especially mother)
E:
Sets mother up to take blame if anything goes wrong in a child’s life
L:
This reduces the validity of the theory
A PEEL paragraph about the two process model being a step forward when it was proposed in 1960
P:
The two process model was a definite step forward when it was proposed in 1960 as it went beyond Watson and Rayners concept of classical conditioning
E:
It explained how phobias could be maintain over time and this has important implications for therapies because it explains why patients need to be exposed to the feared stimulus
E:
Once a patient is prevented from practising their avoidance behaviour the behaviour ceases to be reinforced and so it declines
L:
The application to therapy is a strength of the two process model
A PEEL paragraph about how the two process model does explain all phobias
P:
Not all avoidance behaviour is associated with phobias seems to be the result of anxiety reduction at least in more complex phobias like agoraphobia
E:
Evidence suggest that at least some avoidance behaviour appears to motivated more by positive feelings of safety
E:
In other words the motivating factor in choosing an action like not leaving the house is not so much to avoid phobic stimulus but to stick safety factor
It explains why some patients itch agoraphobia are able to leave their house with a trusted person with relatively little anxiety but not alone
L:
This is a problem for the two process model
The model suggests that avoidance is motivated by anxiety reduction
A PEEL paragraph about how phobias don’t follow a trauma
P:
Phobias that don’t follow a trauma
E:
Sometimes phobias appear following a bad experience and it is easy to see how they could be the result of conditioning
E:
However sometimes people develop a phobia and are not aware of having had a related bad experience
L:
Some people might have a fear of snakes although never actually meeting one this shows all phobias aren’t learned
A PEEL paragraph about how the two process model doesn’t take into account cognitive process
P:
The two - process model doesn’t take into account cognitive process
E:
We know behavioural explanations in general are oriented towards explaining behaviour rather than cognition
E:
This is why the two process model explains maintenance of phobias in terms of avoidance
L:
This is a weakness because the two process model doesn’t take into account cognitive process
A PEEL paragraph about how the two process model is an incomplete explanation
P:
The two process model is an incomplete explanation of phobias
E:
If we accept that classical and operant conditioning are involved in the development of maintenance of phobias some aspects of phobic behaviour require further explaining
Bounton points out that evolutionary factors probably;y have an important role in phobias but two factor theory does not mention in
E:
We can easily acquire phobias of things that have been a source of danger in our evolutionary past such as fear of snakes or of the dark
It is adaptive acquire such fears
Seligman called this biological preparedness
It is quite rare to develop a fear of guns or cars which are actually much more dangerous to most of us today then. Spiders or snakes
Presumably this is because they have only existed very recently and so we are not biologically prepared to learn fear response towards them
L:
This phenomenon of preparedness is a serious oprobvelm for the two -factor theory because it shows there is more to acquiring phobias that simple conditioning
A PEEL paragraph about how Ellis model having partial explanation
P:
It has partial explanation
E:
There is no doubt that some cases of depression follow activating events
E:
Psychologists call this reactive depression and see it as different from the kind of depression that arises without obvious causes
L:
This means Ellis explanation only applies to some kind of depression and is therefore only a partial explanation for depression
This is a strength/weakness
A PEEL paragraph about how CBT has practical application
P:
Practical application in CBT
E:
A strength of Ellis explanation is that like becks explanation it has led to successful therapy
E:
Idea that challenging negative beliefs a person can reduce their depression is supported by research by
lipsky therapies based on Ellis theories have been shown to be better then nothing and other similar therapies
L:
This in turn supports the basic theory because it suggests that the irrational beliefs had some role in the depression this is a strength
A PEEL paragraph about how there is good supporting evidence
P:
It has good supporting evidence
E:
A range of evidence supports the idea that depression is associated with faulty information processing
Negative self-schema and the cognitive vulnerability and depression before and after birth
Grazioli and terry assessed 65 pregnant women for cognitive vulnerability and depression before and after birth
Found women judged to have been high in cognitive vulnerability were more likely to suffer post-natal depression
E:
Clark an beck reviewed research on topic and concluded that there was solid support for all these cognitive vulnerability factors
L:
Critically these cognitions can be seen before depression develops suggesting that beck may be right about cognition causing depression in some cases this is a strength
A PEEL paragraph about CBT having practical application (beck)
P:
It has practical application
E:
A further strength of becks cognitive explanation is that it forms the basis of cognitive behavioural therapy
All cognitive aspects of depression can be identified and challenged in CBT
E:
A therapist can challenge them and encourage the patient to test whether they are true
L:
This is a strength of the explanation because it translates well into a successful therapy
A PEEL paragraph about how not all emotions have cognitive origin
P:
Not all emotions have a cognitive origin
E:
These explanations assume emotions are influenced by cognition (cognitive primacy)
E:
Psychodynamic. - emotions are stored as physical energy and emerge after an event
Biological - neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine have a big influence one emotions
L:
This is a weakness of the cognitive approach to explaining depression
A PEEL paragraph about how Beck and Ellis study doesn’t explain all aspects of depression
P:
It doesn’t explain all aspects of depression
E:
Although Ellis explains why some people appear to be more vulnerable to depression than others as a result of their cognitions
His approach has very much the same limitations as becks
E:
It doesn’t easily plain the anger associated with depression or the fact that some patients suffer hallucinations and delusions
L:
This is a weakness because it doesn’t explain every aspect of depression which means it is an incomplete explanation
A PEEL paragraph about how the strange situation has support for validity
P:
A strength of the strange situation is that it has support for validity
E:
A large body of research has shown that babies and toddlers assessed as type B secure tend to have better outcomes than others both in later childhood and adulthood
Childhood this includes better achievement in school and less involvement in bullying (McCormick et al Kokkinos)
E:
Securely attached babies also tend to go on to have a better mental health in adulthood (Ward et al 2006)
Those babies assessed as having insecure-resistant attachment and those not falling into types A,B or C tend to have worst outcomes
L:
This suggests that the strange situation measures something real and meaningful in a a baby’s development
A Peel paragraph about the strange situation having good reliability
P:
A further strength of the strange situation is that it has good reliability
E:
Bick et al tested inter-rater reliability for the strange situation for a team of trained observes and found agreement on attachment type in 94% of cases
E:
High level of reliability may be because the procedure takes place under controlled conditions also because behaviours (such as proximity seeking and stranger anxiety) involve large movements and are therefore easy to observe
Example anxious babies cry and crawl away from stranger
L:
This means that we can be confident that attachment type as assessed by the strange situation does not depend on subjective judejment
A PEEL paragraph about the strange situation may not measure attachment type
P:
A further weakness of the strange situation is that it may be culture - bound (imposed etic)
E:
The strange situation was developed in Britain and the US may be culture bound ( not valid for use in certain cultures Europe and us)
One reason for this is that babies have different experiences in different cultures and these experience may affect their response to the strange situation
E:
One Japanese’s study Takahashi babies displayed very high levels of separation
A PEEL paragraph about that strange situation being culture-bound (imposed etic)
P:
A further weakness of the strange situation is that it may be culture - bound (imposed etic)
E:
The strange situation was developed in Britain and the US may be culture bound ( not valid for use in certain cultures Europe and us)
One reason for this is that babies have different experiences in different cultures and these experience may affect their response to the strange situation
E:
One Japanese’s study Takahashi babies displayed very high levels of separation anxiety and so a disproportionate number were classified as insecure resistant
Takashi suggests that this anxiety response was not due to high rates of attachment
Insecurity but to the unusual nature of the experience in japan where mother-baby separation is very rare
L:
This means that it is very difficult to know what the strange situation is actually measuring when used outside Europe and US
A PEEL paragraph about the theory is that there may be more attachment types
P:
A final weakness of the theory is that there may be more attachment types
E:
Main and Solomon identified a fourth category of attachment - a disorganised or type D attachment a mix of resistant and avoidant behaviour
E:
However type D babies are unusual and have generally experienced some form of severe neglect or abuse
Most will develop psychological disorders by adulthood
L:
This is a weakness because it doesn’t account for all attachment so cannot be generalised to everyone
A PEEL paragraph about how CBT is effective at treating depression
P:
CBT is effective at treating depression
E:
March et al shows CBT is as effective as drug therapies 81% effective (86% in combination)
E:
This suggests CBT is a good first choice treatment in public health care system
L:
Strength of CBT as treatment for depression
A PEEL paragraph about how CBT may not work for most severe cases of depression
P:
CBT may not work for the most severe cases of depression
E:
Depression can be so severe that patients cannot be motivate themselves to engage with the hard cognitive work of CBT
This may not even be able to pay attention to what is happening in a session
E:
Where this is the case it is possible to treat patients with antidepressants medication and commence CBT when they are more alert and motivated
Although it is possible to work around this by using medication
L:
This is a limitation of CBT because it means CBT cannot be used as the sole treatment for all cases of depression
A PEEL paragraph about how success of CBT may be due to therapist patient relationship ‘
P:
Success may be due to therapist-patient relationship
E:
Rosenzweig suggests that the difference between different methods of psychotherapy such as between CBT and systematic desensitisation might actually might actually be quite small
all psychotherapies share one essential ingredient - the therapist patient relationship
E:
It may be the quality of this relationship that determines success rather than any particular technique that is used
Many comparative reviews (luborsky et al) find very small differences which support the view that simply having g opportunity to talk to someone who will listen could be what matters most
L:
This is a weakness of CBT that bit may not be doing anything it may just be having someone to talk to
A PEEL paragraph about how some patients really want to explore their past
P:
Some patients really want to explore their past
E:
One of the basic principles of CBT is that the focus in therapy is on the present and future not the patients past
This is in contrast to some other forms of psychological therapy
E:
Some patients are aware of the link between their childhood experiences and current depression
Want to talk about it
They can find this present focus frustrating
L:
This is a weakness of CBT because it focuses on changing beliefs instead of why they have these beliefs
A PEEL paragraph about depression having overemphasis on cognittion
P:
Overemphasis on cognition
E:
There is a risk because of its emphasis on what is happening in the mind of the individual patient CBT may end up minimising the importance of the circumstances in which a patient is living (McCusker)
E:
A patient living in poverty or suffering abuse needs ton change their circumstances and any approach to therapy that emphasis what is happening in the patients mind rather than their environment can prevent this
L:
CBT techniques used inappropriately can demotivate people to change
A PEEL paragraph about how OCD has good supporting evidence
P:
There is good supporting evidence
E:
There is evidence from a variety of sources for the idea that some people are vulnerable to OCD as a result of their genetic make up
One of the best sources of evidence for the importance of genes in twin studies
E:
Nestadt et al reviewed previous twin studies and found that 68% of identical twins shared OCD as opposed to 31% of non-identical twins
L:
This is a strength as it strongly suggests a genetic influence on OCD
A PEEL paragraph about how OCD has some supporting evidence
P:
There is some supporting evidence
E:
There is evidence supporting the role of some neural mechanisms for OCD
Some antidepressants work purely on the serotonin system increasing levels of this neurotransmitter
Such drugs are effective in reducing OCD symptoms and this suggests that the serotonin system Is involved in OCD
E:
OCD symptoms from part of a number of other conditions that are biological in origin Parkinson’s disease Nestadt et al
L:
This is a strength as it suggests that the biological processes that cause the symptoms in those conditions may also be responsible for OCD
A peel paragraph about how OCD has too many Candidate genes
P:
Too many candidate genes
E:
Although twin studies strongly suggests that OCD is largely under genetic control psychologists have been much less successful at pinning down all the genes involved
E:
One reason for this is because it appears that several genes involved and that each genetic variation only increases the risk of OCD by a faction
L:
The consequence is that a genetic explanation is unlikely to ever be very useful because it provides little predictive value
Making it a weakness
A PEEL paragraph about there being an environmental risk factors
P:
Environmental risk factors
E:
It seems that environmental factors can also trigger or increase the risk of developing OCD ( the diathesis-stress model)
E:
Cromer et al found that over half the OCD patients in their sample had a traumatic event in their past and that OCD was more severe in those with more than one trauma
L:
This is a weakness because it suggests OCD is not entirely genetic origin at least not in all cases
It may be more productive to focus on the environmental causes because we are more able to do something about these
A PEEL paragraph about how it is not clear exactly what neural mechanisms are involved
P:
It is not clear exactly what neural mechanisms are involved
E:
Studies of decision making have shown that these neural systems are the same systems that function abnormally in OCD (cavedini et al)
E:
However research has also identified other brain systems that may be involved sometimes but no system has ben found that always play a role in OCD
L:
This is a weakness as we cannot therefore really claim to understand the neural mechanisms involved in OCD
A PEEL paragraph about how we should not assume the neural mechanisms cause OCD
P:
We should not assume the neural mechanisms cause OCD
E:
There is evidence to suggest that various neurotransmitters and structure of the brain do not function normally in patients with OCD
E:
However this is not the same as saying that this a abnormal moral function causes the OCD
L:
This is a weakness as these biological abnormalities could be caused by OCD rather than cause OCD
A PEEL paragraph about serotonin OCD link may be simply co-morbidity with depression
P:
The serotonin OCD link may be simply co-morbidity with depression
E:
Many people who suffer OCD become depressed
This depression probably involves (though is not necessarily caused by) disruption to the serotonin system
E:
This leaves us with a logical problem when it comes to the serotonin system as a possible basis for OCD
L:
This is a weakness as it could simply be that the serotonin system is disrupted in many patients with OCD because they are depressed as well
A PEEL paragraph about twin studies are flawed and genetic evidence
P:
Twin studies are flawed as genetic evidence
E:
Twin studies are a standard source of evidence for genetic influence
E:
However they make the assumption that identical twins are only more similar than non-identical twins in terms of their genes but overlook the fact that identical twins may also be more similar in terms of shared environments
L:
This is a weakness due to non identical twins may have quite different experiences one being a boy and one being a girl
A PEEL paragraph about most studies being carried out by indigenous researchers
P:
One strength is that most studies were carried out by indigenous researchers
E:
Ijzendoorn and kroonenberg included research by a German team( Grossman et al) + Takahashi who is Japanese
E:
This kind of research means that many of the potential problems in cross-cultural research can avoided such as research misunderstanding of the language used by participants or having difficulty communicating instructions to them
Difficulties can also include bias because of one nations steryotypes of another
L:
This means there is an excellent chance that resertachers and participants communicated successful - enhancing the validity
A PEEL paragraph about how there are competing explanations
P:
A finals point is that there are competing explanations
E:
Cross-cultural research has found very similar attachment types in different countries
Bowlbys theory explains this similarity by identifying attachment as innate and universal
Ijzendoorn and kroonenberg suggest an alternative explanation
E:
Namely that global media represents a particular view of how parents and babies are meant to behave
This may override traditional cultural differences in the way children are brought up
L:
There are a number of different factors that play a part in attachment types
A PEEL paragraph about how there isn’t a case for all cross-cultural
P:
However this isn’t the case for all cross-cultural research
E:
Morelli and Tronick were outsiders from America when they studied child rearing and patterns of attachment in the Efe of Zaire
E:
Their data might have been affected by difficulties in gathering data from participants outside their own culture
L:
This means that the data from some countries might have been effected by bias and difficulty in cross cultural communication
A PEEL paragraph about confounding variables in culture variations
P:
A weakness is that there are confounding variables
E:
Studies conducted in different countries are not usually matched for methodology when they are compared in reviews or meta analyses
Sample characteristics such as poverty ,social class and urban/rural make up can confound results as can the age of participants studied in different countries
E:
Environmental variables might also differ between studies and confound results
For example the size of the room and the availability of interesting toys there babies might appear to explore more in studies conducted in small rooms with attractive toys compared to large bare rooms
Less visible proximity seeking because of room size might make a child more likely to be classified as avoidant
L:
This means that looking at attachment behaviour is different non-matched studies conducted in different countries may not tell us about cross cultural patterns of attachment
A PEEL paragraph about the method being an imposed etic
P:
Another weakness is that the method may be an imposed etic
E:
Cross-cultural psychology includes the ideas of emic (cultural uniqueness) and etic(cross-cultural universality)
Imposed etic occurs when we assume an idea or technique that works in one culturally context will work in another
For example of this in attachment id in the use of babies response to reunion with the caregiver in the strange situation
E:
In Britain and the US lack of affection on reunion may indicate avoidant attachment
But in Germany such behaviour would be more likely interpreted as independence rather than insecurity
Therefore that part of the strange situation may not work in Germany
L:
This means that the behaviours measured by the strange situation may not have the same meanings in different cultural contexts and comparing them across cultures is meaningless
A PEEL paragraph about Drug therapy is effective at tackling OCD symptoms
P:
Drug therapy is effective at tackling OCD symptoms
E:
Clear evidence for the effectiveness of SSRIs in reducing the severity of OCD symptoms and so improving quality of life for OCD patients
Soomro et al reviewed studies comparing SSRIs to placebo in the treatment of OCD and concluded that all 17 studies reviewed showed significantly better result for the SSRIs are combined with a psychological treatment usually CBT
E:
Typically symptoms decline significantly for around 70% patients tracking SSRIs
