PSYCHOLOGY’S HISTORY AND APPROACHES REVIEW Flashcards
Wilhelm Wundt
Experiment to measure reaction time (1st lab experiment)/philosopher and physiologist
Edward Bradford Titchener
structuralism
William James
philosopher-psychologist who considered the evolved function of our thoughts and feelings and authored an important 1890 psychology text
Charles Darwin
Evolutionary theorist
Mary Whiton Calkins
Pioneering memory researcher and the first woman to be president of the American Psychological Association
Margaret Floy Washburn
First woman to receive a psychology Ph.D. and wrote The Animal Mind, which is about animal behavior research
Ivan Pavlov
a Russian physiologist best known in psychology for his discovery of classical conditioning
Sigmund Freud
Personality theorist and therapist whose controversial ideas have influenced humanity’s self-understanding
Jean Piaget
Piaget provided support for the idea that children think differently than adults and his research identified several important milestones in the mental development of children. His work also generated interest in cognitive and developmental psychology.
B. F. Skinner
Rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior
Dorothea Dix
Dorothea Dix played an instrumental role in the founding or expansion of more than 30 hospitals for the treatment of the mentally ill. She was a leading figure in those national and international movements that challenged the idea that people with mental disturbances could not be cured or helped.
G. Stanley Hall
Established the first formal U.S. psychology laboratory
Abraham Maslow
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid.
From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are: physiological (food and clothing), safety (job security), love and belonging needs (friendship), esteem, and self-actualization.
Carl Rogers
Rogers believed that all people possess an inherent need to grow and achieve their potential.
John B. Watson
Championed psychology as the science of behavior and demonstrated conditioned responses on a baby
Jean Piaget
Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of learning: sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, formal operational stage
Empiricism
knowledge originates in experience and science should rely on observation and experimentation
Structuralism
self-reflective introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind (explain what we hear, see, taste etc.)
Functionalist/Functionalism
early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function–how they enabled the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.
Experimental Psychology
study of behavior and thinking with experimental method
Behaviorists
people who believed psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes
Humanistic Psychology
people who studied how current environmental influences can nurture or limit our growth potential
Cognitive Neuroscience
The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).
Psychology
the science of behavior and mental processes
Nature v. Nurture
Are we who we are because of our genes or because of our environment?
Natural Selection
the process through which populations of living organisms adapt and change
Levels of Analysis
The various ways of observation in psychology, which are biological, cognitive, and sociocultural
Biopsychosocial Approach
Biological influences, psychological influences, and social-cultural influences affect behavior or mental process
Biological Perspective
Links between biological and psychological processes
brain chemistry
Behavior-Genetics Perspective
Combined effects of environment and genes
Evolutionary Perspective
natural selection
survival of the fittest
Psychodynamic Perspective
Unconscious drives
Childhood trauma
Behavioral Perspective
Observable behavior
Environmental effects
Cognitive Perspective
Thinking, knowing, remembering
Processing storage, and retrieval of information
Humanistic Perspective
Human potential, meaning of life, self-concept, and self-actualization
Social-Cultural Perspective
cultural context as an influence on behavior and mental processes
Psychometrics
Study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
Basic Research
Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
Biological Psychologists
A branch of psychology that focuses on how the brain, neurons, and nervous system influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
basic research
Developmental Psychologists
Study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan
Basic Research
Cognitive Psychologists
The branch of psychology that focuses on internal mental states. It is centered on the science of how people think, learn, and remember
Basic Research
Educational Psychologists
A study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning
Basic Research
Personality Psychologists
Study of an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
Basic Research
Social Psychologists
Study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
Basic Research
Applied Research
Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
Industrial-organizational Psychologists
The application of psychological concepts/methods to optimize human behavior in the workplace
Applied Research
Human Factors Psychologists
The study of how people and machines interact resulting in the design of machines and environments
Applied Research
Counseling Psychologists
Assist people with problems in living (often related to school, work, and marriage) and in achieving greater well-being
Applied Research
Clinical Psychologists
The study, assessment and treatment of people with psychological disorders (psychotherapy)
Applied Research
Psychiatrists
a medical practitioner specializing in the diagnosis and treatment of mental illness.
Hindsight Bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
Overconfidence
overestimate our knowledge and abilities
Curiosity
a strong desire to know or learn something.
Skepticism
Doubt of the truth of something
Humility
An awareness of our own vulnerability to error and an openness to surprises and new perspectives
Critical Thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Instead, it examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
Theory
An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events (researched and tested)
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory (educated guess)
Operational Definition
a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables (needs to be measurable, manageable, and clear).
Replication
Main goal of research. Allows for testing of hypotheses with other populations so results can be generalized
Case Study
An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Survey
A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
Wording Effects
Questions must be clear and unbiased
Random Sampling
a part of the sampling technique in which each sample has an equal probability of being chosen
Population
is the complete set group of individuals, whether that group comprises a nation or a group of people with a common characteristic
Random Sample
Must be representative of the population surveyed
Naturalistic Observation
Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Correlation (Positive and Negative)
A statistical measure of relations indicating how one factor predicts another
Correlation Coefficient
Reveals how closely two things vary together and thus how well either one predicts the other (direction and strength of relationship)
Scatterplot
uses dots to represent individual pieces of data
Illusory Correlation
The perception of a relationship where none exists
Experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable)
Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, so that each participant has the same opportunity to be assigned to any group
Double-blind Procedure
An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or the placebo.
Placebo Effect
Experimental results caused by expectation alone, any effect on behavior caused by administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent
Experimental group
In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
Control group
In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
Independent Variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
Confounding Variables
A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
Dependent Variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
Measures of Central
These give us information about the center of the scores in our distribution
Tendency
an inclination toward a particular characteristic or type of behavior
Mode
Most frequently occurring number in a series
Mean
The average of a series of numbers
Median
The middle number when the series of numbers is arranged from highest to lowest number
Measures of Variation
These give us information about the spread of the scores in our distribution-are they clustered together or spread out on the scale?
Range
The measure of the absolute spread of the scores
The difference between the high and low scores in a distribution. Subtract the two numbers to find the range
Standard Deviation
An estimate of the amount of dispersion around the mean.
The smaller the standard deviation, the more confident you can be that the mean is a good estimate of the group
Normal Curve
normal curve
bell-shaped curve
Skewed Curve
a distortion or asymmetry that deviates from the symmetrical bell curve, or normal distribution, in a set of data
When is Observed Difference Reliable?
Less-variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable
When is a Difference Significant?
A result that’s not attributed to chance
Statistical Significance
The results of a study are not due to chance
5% or less is acceptable
Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?
By intentionally creating a controlled, artificial environment in the lab, researchers aim to test theoretical principles. These general principles help explain everyday behaviors
Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender?
Even when specific attitudes and behaviors vary across cultures, as they often do, the underlying processes are much the same
Culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
Why do psychologists study animals, and is it ethical to experiment on animals?
Scientists study animals when there is no alternative and it is impractical or unethical to study humans
Is it ethical to experiment on people?
We have a moral responsibility to protect research participants from harm
Informed Consent
an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
Debrief
the post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
Is psychology free of value judgments?
No. Psychology emerges from people who subscribe to a set of values and judgments that determine what will be studied, how it will be studied, and how the results will be interpreted.
