Cognition Flashcards
1
Q
Proposed the multi-store model of memory (also known as the modal model) was proposed which is a structural model
A
Richard Atkinson & Richard Shifflin
2
Q
developed a model of working memory to provide a more accurate description of short-term memory
A
Alan Baddeley
3
Q
Spacing Effect - learning spaced out for best result
Discovered forgetting curve
A
Hermann Ebbinghaus
4
Q
found that as the snail learned, chemical signals changed the structure of the connections between cells, known as synapses, where the signals are sent and received
showed that short-term and long-term memories are formed by different signals
A
Eric Kandel
5
Q
pioneered experimental work conducted on rats with surgically induced brain lesions, by damaging or removing specific areas of a rat’s cortex, either before or after the animals were trained in mazes and visual discrimination
A
Karl Lashley
6
Q
Misinformation effect
research on human memory, notably false memories
A
Elizabeth Loftus
7
Q
the first well-studied patient with amnesia
other patients with memory impairment were compared to him
A
H. M.
8
Q
devised a novel technique to determine the number of digits that can be held directly accessible in memory, at any given point
A
Rajan Mahadevan
9
Q
helped to found the new field of cognitive neuroscience, and developed Wordnet, a database of words linked by their semantic relations
A
George Miller
10
Q
collections of case histories from the far borderlands of neurological experience
A
Oliver Sacks
11
Q
Research focused on explaining the biochemical basis of learning and memory and focused on the origins of learning and animal behaviors at the cellular and molecular level
A
James Schwartz
12
Q
documented the existence of iconic memory
A
George Sperling
13
Q
conducted an experiment to determine whether the level of processing has an influence on recall
A
Fergus Craik & Endel Tulving
14
Q
Universal Grammar - states that language is innate, or inborn, instead of learned, as is believed in behaviorism theory
A
Noam Chomsky
15
Q
Insight learning - learning can occur when we gain insight into an entire situation, as opposed to focusing only on an individual part
A
Wolfgang Kohler
16
Q
the development of the philosophy of radical behaviorism and for the further development of applied behavior analysis
A
B. F. Skinner
17
Q
the triarchic theory of intelligence and several influential theories related to creativity, wisdom, thinking styles, love, hate, and leadership
A
Robert Sternberg
18
Q
Confirmation Bias
His Rule Discovery Test proves that most people do not try at all to test their hypotheses critically but rather to confirm them
A
Peter Wason
19
Q
Linguistic Determinism
the language you speak affects the way that you view and think about the world
A
Benjamin Lee Whorf
20
Q
language attitudes as a way of thinking about or behaving towards something which formed or shaped by parents
A
Wallace Lambert
21
Q
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
A
Memory
22
Q
The process of acquiring information and entering it into memory
A
Encoding
23
Q
The process of maintaining information in memory over time
A
Storage
24
Q
The process of recalling information stored in memory
A
Retrieval
25
Capacity:
Virtually everything you see (iconic) and hear (echoic) at one instant
Duration:
Eye-30 seconds
Ear-3 to 4 seconds
Sensory Memory
26
Capacity:
About 7 items in healthy adults
Duration:
Up to 18-20 seconds
Short-term Memory
27
Capacity:
Unlimited
Duration:
Relatively permanent
Long-term Memory
28
a newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
Working Memory
29
Encoding of incidental information or well-learned material
Space - remembering where on a textbook page a term is
Time - noting the sequence of the day's events
Frequency - keeping track of how many times something happens
Well learned Material - riding a bicycle
Automatic Processing
30
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision
Parallel Processing
31
Must make an effort to process the information (rehearsal)
Effortful Processing
32
the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage.
Rehearsal
33
Describes how our memory is affected by the position of information in a sequence
Serial Position Effect
34
The enhanced ability to recall items from the beginning of the list
Primacy Effect
35
The enhanced ability to recall items from the end of the list
Recency Effect
36
When information in a list is unique or strange in some way, we remember it
Von Restorff Effect
37
Long term learning is promoted when learning events are spaced out in time, rather then presented in immediate succession
Spacing Effect
38
We remember words better that lend themselves to picture images rather than abstract low-imagery words
Visual Encoding
39
Remember sound of the word
Processing shallowly
Acoustic Encoding
40
Remember meaning
Processing deeply
Semantic Encoding
41
mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with encoding (visual encoding.)
Imagery
42
Based on the assumption that you can best remember places that you are familiar with, so if you can link something you need to remember with a place that you know very well, the location will serve as a clue that will help you remember
Method of Loci
43
Short stories that contain information that has to be remembered. unlike memorization by repetition, the narrative puts the unorganized information into meaningful context, because as we know the long term memory is coded semantically
Narrative Chaining
44
Acronyms, narrative chaining, method of loci, etc.
Mnemonics
45
Involves reducing long strings of information that can be difficult to remember down into shorter, more manageable, meaningful chucks
Chucking
46
A system or organization in which people or groups are ranked one above the other according to status or authority
Hierarchies
47
much of what we sense, we never notice
Forgetting as an encoding failure
48
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.
Iconic Memory
49
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
Echoic Memory
50
an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
Long-term Potentiation
51
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
Flashbulb Memory
52
A significant memory loss that is too extensive to be due to normal forgetting
Amnesia
53
Loss of memory of past events (brain injury or disease)
Retrograde Amnesia
54
Cannot form or store new memories (brain injury or disease)
Anterograde Amnesia
55
A form of amnesia which occurs in otherwise healthy people. Involves loss of important personal information (functional amnesia)
Psychogenic Amnesia
56
Forgets the past and their identities
Fugue State
57
Experience memory loss which is restricted to a particular period of time (ex. violent crime)
Dissociative Amnesia
58
The course of forgetting is initially rapid and then levels off with time
Forgetting as a storage problem
59
Without conscious recall
Motor skills (Procedural), Cognitive skills (Procedural), Processed by the cerebellum
Implicit Memory
60
Memories we have to consciously recall
Facts (Semantic), Personal (Semantic/Episodic), Processed by hippocampus
Explicit Memory
61
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage
Hippocampus
62
No outside influence to assist in remembering
Recall
63
Memory is influenced by outside factors
Recognition
64
Once something is learned, it is easier to learn it a second time
Relearning
65
The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
Priming
66
These are the best cues when we form them at the time we encode the memory
Associations
67
Putting yourself back in the context where you experienced something
Context Effects
68
The uncanny sensation that you've already experienced something, even when you know you never have
Most often happens to people between the ages of 15 and 25
Most often happens to people who travel a lot, remember their dreams, or who are stressed
Temporal lobe of the brain helps us remember familiar experiences ... but nothing has been proven as to why people experience it
Deja vu
69
Remembering to do something in the future
Prospective memory
70
Consistency between one's mood state and the emotional context of memories recalled
During positive mood states, individuals will tend to retrieve pleasant memories, whereas during negative mood states, negative thoughts and associations will more likely come to mind
Mood Congruent Memory
71
Moods affect our interpretation of events
Moods affect our attention to new information
Moods and Memory
72
Information that we learn in one state (happy, sad, drunk, etc) is more easily recalled in that state
State Dependent Memory
73
The learning of some items may interfere with the retrieval of others
Interference
74
Old information interferes with new information
Proactive Interference
75
New information interferes with old information
Retroactive Interference
76
pushing anxiety-causing thoughts out of conscious awareness
Repression
77
We construct memories as we encode them
We alter memories as we remember them
Memory Construction (Things to remember)
78
After exposure to subtle misinformation many people misremember (easier to do after memory has faded)
Misinformation Effect
79
Impaired memory of how, when, or where information was learned despite good memory for the information itself
Source Amnesia
80
2-to3 year olds have the worst accuracy, they omit stuff that happens and add stuff that didn't
Mere accurate as age increases
Maxes out at about 12 years of age
Repeatedly being subjected to leading questions (misinformation effect) can lead to false memories
Children tend to say what they think you want to hear, especially authority figure
Children as eyewitnesses
81
Mental processes associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Is based on the use of concepts
We filter new information through the lens of concepts
Remember information based on concepts
Cognition
82
The basic building block of thought
Concept
83
The best example of a particular category or concept
Prototype
84
Step by step procedure that guarantees a solution. This is a very long and drawn out way of doing things
Algorithm
85
Apply the trail and error strategy (try different ways until you get it right) or rule of thumb strategy (this usually worked before so try it again)
Heuristic
86
Sudden flashes of inspiration without repeated trials or continuous practices (Ah Ha moments)
Insight
87
Ability to transcend traditional ideas, rules, patterns, etc.
Creativity
88
The way the mind generates ideas beyond normal expectations and rote thinking -- what is usually referred to thinking outside the box, and is often associated with creativity
Divergent Thinker
89
The solution to a problem can be deduced by applying established rules and logical reasoning. This type of reasoning involves solving a problem within the context of known information and narrowing down the solution based on logical inference
Convergent Thinker
90
Expertise
Imagination
Adventurousness
Intrinsic motivation
Creative environment
Components of Creativity
91
To form concepts that organize our world, overcome obstacles, and make efficient decisions and judgements
Thinking
92
Belief in one way, favoritism, prejudice, intolerance
Biases
93
Tendency to search for information that supports our belief
Confirmation Bias
94
tendency for our preexisting beliefs to distort logical thinking
Belief Bias
95
the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving
Fixation
96
Tendency to repeat solutions that have worked in the past
Mental Set
97
Perceiving functions of objects to be fixed and unchanging
Functional Fixedness
98
flexible, rational thought becomes difficult during these times
Stress
99
A mental shortcut by which new situation is judged by how well it matches a stereotypical model or a particular prototype
Representative Heuristic
100
Estimating the probability of certain events in terms of how readily they come to mind
Availability Heuristic
101
the tendency to be more confident than correct and to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements
Overconfidence
102
How an issue is framed can significantly affect people's perceptions, decisions, and judgements
Framing
103
Tendency to hold on to belief even after it is discredited
Belief Perseverance
104
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.
Intuition
105
Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
Language
106
The process by which information is exchanged
Communication
107
The smallest distinctive sound units in a language
Some phonemes are not found in all language (no 'th' sound in French)
There are 44 sounds in the English language
Phoneme
108
The smallest units that carry meaning in a given language
Made up of phonemes
Can be words or prefixes or suffixes
Morpheme
109
The system of rules that enable us to communicate with one another. These rules guide us in deriving meaning from sounds (semantics) and in ordering words into sentences (syntax)
Grammar
110
A system of rules used to derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences
Sentence structure and spelling of a word aid us in deriving meaning
Semantics
111
A system of rules for word order
Syntax
112
Ability to understand what is said to and about them
Development starts at 4 months of age when babies start to recognize differences in speech sounds
Receptive Language
113
Ability to produce words, matures after receptive languages
Recognize noun-verb differences
Productive Language
114
Not imitation of adult speech
Includes sounds of various languages
Some sounds not found in any languages
Deaf infants babble too
10 months, babbling resembles native language
10 months, sounds outside of native language disappear
Babbling Stage
115
Around 1st birthday, learn sounds carry meaning and begin to use sounds to communicate meaning
Sounds usually refer to things that move or can be played with
One-word Stage
116
Around 2nd birthday, telegraphic speech (noun and verbs: doggy bark)
Follows syntax rules
Will quickly begin uttering longer phrases
Two-word Stage
117
speech that consists of minimalistic sentences. This form of speech characterizes early toddlerhood and is the first evidence of sentence formation
Telegraphic Speech
118
All human language have nouns, verbs, and adjectives as grammatical building blocks
Humans are born with a built-in predisposition to learn grammar rules
Universal Grammar
119
Language determines the way we think
Language can affect the sense of self that people have
Words influence our thinking about colors since it is used to classify and remember colors
Children's thinking develops with their language
Linguistic Determinism
