Psychology Learning Memory Flashcards
Types of language development theories
1) learning perspective : via operant conditions, language imitation and practice
2) nativist : innate and biologically predetermined ( occurs s during a critical period early in life - time sensitive period early in life during which language acquisition is easier until 18 years but as younger - easier)
3) interactionist perspective : biological ( due to normal brain development) and social ( due to interaction, reinforcement, desire/ motivation to communicate)
Linguistic relativity theory definition
The Sapir Whorf hypothesis
Cognition is influenced and/or shaped by language
Ex: children are unable to think about concepts for which they have not yet learned the words
What is instinctive drift?
Instruct is an innate, fixed pattern of behavior that is more complex than a reflect ( simple response to a stimulus).
Instincts are not based on prior experience or learning.
Drift describes an animals innate behaviors overshadowing a learned behavior via operant conditions. Often related to food or exploration.
Correlation coefficient r
Describes linear relationship between two variables
Language and cognition theories
1) cognition shaped language. Universalism - cognition controls language and Piaget - congnition influences language
2) language shaped cognition by Sapir Whorf. Linguistic relativity - language influences the cognition and linguistic determinism - language controls cognition
3) language and thought are independent of each other and simultaneously by vigotsky that suggested that social interaction is necessary for both language and cognition
Language areas are
1) Broca area - speech production ( frontal lobe)
2) wernicke area - language comprehension ( temporal lobe)
3) auditory complex- processing of auditory information (frontal lobe)
Primary visual cortex function
Occipital lobe
Responsible for processing of visual input
Somatosensory cortex function
Parietal lobe (теменная)
Responsible for sensory input from the body about touch sensation and position of limbs in space
What serial position effect?
Items that are easiest to recall are those from the beginning ( primacy effect - long term) and end ( recency effect -short term memory) of the list while middle items are the hardest to recall.
EEG brain waves during sleep
Measures brain activity patterns reflective of sleep and waking stagesAwake, relaxed - alpha waves
Sleep Stage 1 - theta waves
Sleep stage 2 - sleep spindles and K complex
Sleep stage 3,4 - delta waves, slow wave stage
Types of biases
Bias on the part of study:
1) experimenter bias - when researchers influence the results in such a way to verify their hypothesis
2) sampling bias - when study participants are recruited from population nonrandomly resulting in a no representative sample
3) question order bias
Bias based on the part of subjects:
1) response bias - responding inaccurately or falsely to questions
2) social desirability - tendency to provide the most favorable and acceptable responses to research questions. Participants may overemphasize positive behavior while underreporting undesirable behaviors.
3) Hawthorne effect - students change their behavior because they are aware of being observed, pretending to be working harder
What does mental set describes?
Inclination to use old methods to solve new problems
Types of memory
What is source monitoring?
Memory error in which a source of a memory is incorrectly attributes a memory to the wrong source
Semantic long term memory organization
Organized as a network of interconnected nodes containing factual concepts ( colors, objects). It is unique to each individual. For example: an individual with an uncle who is a firefighter may think of uncle when viewing a fire engine which wouldn’t occur for most people.
Terms :
1) spreading activation - When a node (concept) sighing an individuals semantic networks triggers the activation of other related nodes - priming
2) semantic network. Personal meaning associated with each node. It is easier to recall information that is semantically relevant ( meaningful).
Symptoms of depression
Feelings of sadness, hopelessness, emptiness, lack of interest, lack of pleasure ( anhedonia)
How can memory retrieval can be aided?
By internal cues ( like state- dependent state) and external ( sights, smells, context environmental cues)
What is role playing effect?
Occurs when people take on attitudes that align with social roles they are playing.
Ex: a student pretending to be a prison guard might start believe that prisoners deserve punishment
Practice effects is
Performance gains that occur when an individual takes an assessment more than once due to increased familiarity and conform with the material and testing format
Types of intelligence
1) Fluid - ability to creatively solve new problems and see new patterns. Declines with age
2) Crystallized ( ability to apply established skills or knowledge. Stable with age
3) analytical - completing academic problems and problem solving tasks
4) creative - dealing with novel problems with a fresh solution
5) interpersonal - understanding and interacting with other people
6) emotional - skill to perceive, asses and manage emotions of oneself, others and groups
What cognitive effect do older people have?
Declined in episodic memory ( autobiographical events) and in fluid intelligence
Remains stable in semantic and procedural memory, and in crystalllized intelligence
What is reminiscence bump?
When older adults tend to recall event from they youth and younger adulthood more easily than event that happened later
Normal memory decay or forgetting characteristics
Initial rate of decay is highest right after material is learned and then plateaus over time
Decay- memories aren’t recalled constantly will decay and eventually be forgotten
How memory is consist?
Encoding - transfer information into memory. Elaboration - strategy to enhance memory when new info is associated with previously known info.
Storage - retention of information
Retrieval - information accessed from memory
What is associative learning?
Linking of two events or stimuli.
Ex: in operant conditioning, behavior is associated with a consequence
Types of behavior
1) Operant- repeating behavior is influenced by a consequence. Positive reinforcement increases the behavior. Primary reinforcers are naturally rewarding ( candy) whereas secondary reinforcers are conditioned to be desirable ( stickers).
Punishment decreases the behavior.
2) classical conditioning
3) observational learning
What is heuristics?
Mental shortcuts that allow for fast problem solving and decision making but sometimes lead to inaccurate conclusions.
Types;
Availability - how easily something comes to memory ( assuming shark attacks are common after seeing one reported on the news).
Representativeness heuristic - how well something matches a mento prototype ( assuming a woman dressed in scrubs is a nurse rather than a surgeon)
What so actor observer bias?
Tendency to attribute one’s own actions to external factors but the actions of other to internal factors
What is hindsight bias?
A cognitive bias in which an event is perceived as having been predictable after it has occurred
ADHD characteristics
Characterized by inattention ( distractibility and difficulty focusing) and impulsivity (acting without thinking about consequences)
Occurs usually before age 12
In at least 2 setting ( home, school) and cause functional impairment
Working memory characteristics
Involves the manipulation and processing of information while short term memory doesn’t.
Consists of central executive - regulated attention and task switching and three subsystems which are controlled by this system:
1) visual spatial sketchpad- during manipulation of visual and/or spatial information ( eg, reading a map)
2) phonological loop - during manipulation of spoken or written information ( eg, reading a book)
3) episodic buffer - responsible for temporal processing ( eg, understanding the timeline of events) and integrating information from long term memory into working memory
Prefrontal cortex functions
Frontal lobe
Regulated executive functions such as attention, inhibition, working memory, reasoning, planning, making decisions, solving problems.
Doesn’t reach full maturity until age 25
Perspectives characteristics
Biological - explain human behavior through understanding physical and physiological causes
Behaviorism - through role of punishment and reinforcement on shaping behavior
Social cognitive perspective - role of social influence on behavior through social interaction, modeling, imitation
Biomedical - physiological causes such as abnormal brain chemistry causes psychological symptoms and medical interventions for treatment
Humanistic - emphasizes higher aspects of human nature such as the drive toward self actualization ( achieving full potential)
Interference characteristics
Memory process when all memories interfere with the ability to recall other memories.
Proactive - When old memories hinder the ability to make new memories
Retroactive - new information prevents the recollection of old memories . occurs when you forget a previously learnt task due to the learning of a new task
Types of selective attention
When many stimuli are present but a persons ignores non task related stimuli.
Ability to focus on one stimulus or rask despite distractions
1) cocktail party effect- when attention quickly shifts from an attended stimuli to an unattended stimulus when something significant occurs. Ex: at the crowded party you tune out all competing noise to focus on the person you are taking to ( attended stimulus) but if you hear your name in another conversation your attention quickly shifts to that unattended stimulus.
2) speech shadowing - used in dichotic listening tasks ( competing information presented in each ear) that involves repeating information presented in one ear while tuning out the competing information in the other ear
Divided attention types
Also called multitasking
Ability of the brain to attend to two or more different stimuli at the same time simultaneously
Types: task similarity, take difficulty, task practice
It is easier to perform two dissimilar tasks than two similar tasks because they are easier to do simultaneously.
Long-term potentiation ( LTP) definition
Deceives neural changes responsible for learning, memory and associations (when two or more neurons repeatedly fire simultaneously).
Occurs when a neurons firing rate increases after repeated stimulation or simultaneous stimulation by multiple inputs ( association).
Results in an increase in the release of the neurotransmitter by the presynaptic neuron and in increase in the number of receptors in the post synaptic neuron.
What is neuroplasticity?
Lasting changes in the brain that occur when interactions with the environment alter neurons and/or pathways.
Increase in neuronal connections - potentiation.
Decrease in neuronal responses - depression.
Can occur on the synaptic and structural level. Synaptic : results from changes in the firing rate of the presynaptic neuron which alters the amount of neurotransmitters released in the synaptic cleft and the number of receptors on the post synaptic target. Changes associated with both immediate and more delayed potentiation or depression. Occurs quickly.
Structural : sprouting ( increased connections between neurons), rerouting ( new connections), and pruning ( decreased connections). Doesn’t happen quickly, only delayed potentiation or depression.
Types of amnesia
Anterograde - inability to form new memories
Retrograde - memory loss for events previously encoded.
Major psychotherapeutic approaches
1) cognitive behavioral therapy - replacing negative thoughts and behaviors with healthier thoughts and behaviors
2) psychoanalytic ( talk therapy) therapy - attempts to uncover how unconsumed conflicts from childhood shape behavior
3) humanistic therapy ( person- centered therapy) - to move toward self actualization
Classical conditioning characteristics
When a stimulus that didn’t previously elicit a meaningful response takes on properties of a biologically a rousing stimulus.
Ex: when a dog hears the sound of the bell every time it receives the food, the sound of the bell alone will eventually produce salivation ( meaningful response).
US ( biologically arousing) cause UR ( innate reactions). While neutral stimulus do not produce meaningful response.
neutral stimulus paired with US becomes a CS causing a CR.
Phases of classical conditioning
1) acquisition ( приобретение) - learning that takes place as an association is formed between the US ( food) and the neutral stimulus ( bell)
2) extinction ( угасание) - when a CR gradually stops occurring in the absence of the US. A dog will stop salivating if the bell is representing without food.
3) spontaneous recovery - when an extinct response reappears after a period of time)
What is stimulus discrimination?
Ability to respond differently to similar stimuli therefore ability to distinguish between two stimuli
On what type of memory do CR rely on?
Implicit because of emotions/reflexes
What is stimulus generalization?
When the CR is elicited by the stimuli similar to the original CS, ability to respond similar to the similar stimuli
Types of ego defense mechanisms
Unconscious way to deal with the anxiety caused by unacceptable urges and thoughts
Neuroimaging methods types
1) EEG - voltage in the brain over a period of time. Electrodes placed on scalp
2) CT - multiple x-rays at different angles, measures structure of internal organs and tissues at a single point in time.
3) fMRI - scanner detects different properties of oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin. Measures changed in blood oxygenation in the brain over time.
4) PET - scanner detects radioactive tracer attached to a glucose analogue, measures changes in glucose metabolism in the brain over time
What is token economy in operant conditioning?
Positively reinforcers certain behaviors through the use of tokens which are secondary reinforcers that can be exchanged for a desirable reward.
Ex: a teacher gives a child a gold star (token) for completing homework and 5 gold stars can be exchanged for candy.
To encourage certain behavior through the use of secondary reinforcers is that can be exchanged for smth interesting
Principles of training new behaviors in operant conditioning
- Increase motivational state( deprive of a desirable stimulus -food)
- Shaping ( Rewarding successive approximations of desirable behavior : food for exploring wheels, or rewards proper behavior and discouraging improper)
- Continuous reinforcement ( reward for desirable behavior every time it occurs) ex: partial reinforcement schedule ( not fixed!)
Types of partial reinforcement schedule
Ratio ( based on response)
Interval ( based on time)
Behavior is reinforced in certain intervals
What is the schedule of reinforcement responses?
Ratio produce rapid response rate while interval slow response
Fixed intervals tend to produce increased behavioral responses just before the award and decrease just after the award
Types of reinforcements and punishments
Primary and secondary
Primary reinforcers - fulfill biological urge and naturally rewarding ( food, praise). Secondary reinforcer - learned reward ( money, good grades)
Primary punisher - naturally undesirable and cause negative emotions such as pain or fear ( electric shock). Secondary punisher - undesirable through associative learning.
What is taste aversion?
Type of classical conditioning
When an organism becomes I’ll after consuming smth, it becomes associated with illness then she always avoid it.
Type of associative learning
Long term lasting
What is taste aversion?
Type of classical conditioning
When an organism becomes I’ll after consuming smth, it becomes associated with illness then she always avoid it.
Type of associative learning
Long term lasting
Hemispheric lateralization characteristics
Corpus callosum permits the exchange of information between the two hemispheres
Left hemisphere functions: analytical thought, language, reasoning, math, science, controls touch and movement on right side.
Right hemisphere functions: spatial processing, emotion, art, music, visualization, controls touch and movement on left side
Memory retrieval types
1) recall - retrieval information from memory ( fill in the blank tests)
2) recognition - identification of previously learned information/ target ( multiple choice)
3) relearning - re encoding of information learned but forgotten ( relearning algebra as an adults)
What types of memory stable with aging?
Semantic and procedural
Types of nonassociative learning
1) habituation - decreased response to a stimuli over time
2) dishabituation - a renews response to a previously habituated stimulus
3) sensitization - increased response to a stimulus over time
4) desensitization- decreased response to a previously sensitized stimulus over time
The fundamental attribution bias
Tendency to blame others behavior on internal factors (he is stupid) than external (the test was hard) . No judge to own behavior. Tendency to over value inner personality and under value external
What is negative priming?
Difference between UR and CR
UR occur naturally without learning while CR occur when a neural stimuli is paired with US
Types of negative reinforcement?
1) escape learning - When an organism learns how to terminate an ongoing unpleasant stimulus
2) avoidance learning - when a person knows how to prevent the unpleasant stimulus in the future
Reliability vs validity
Reliability - consistency of an experiment of measure by producing similar results all the time.
Validity - accuracy of a study or measure.
External validity - known as generalizability, extent to which study results can be applied outside the laboratory
Korsakoff syndrome characteristics
Dementia due to lack of vitamin B1 - thiamin
Alzheimer disease characteristics
Neuro generative disease and common cause of dementia.
Symptoms: memory loss, confusion, difficult executing tasks, personality changes, cognitive distinction.
Risk factors for AD include causing greater Amyloid plaques accumulation and neurofibrillary tangles ( genetics) and many environmental factors
Acetylcholine is reduced.
What is mirror neuron system?
Type of observational learning ( modeling).
Learning through imitation ( observational learning).
Specialized neurons in the brain that fire fire both while observing and while performing a behavior
Differences between within group and between group
Between group - testing two or more groups at the same time
Within group - testing the same group at several time points
Flashbulb memory characteristics
A vivid ( яркие) detailed type of autobiographical explicit memory for an event that was extremely emotional, important, personal and distinct.
People are confident with about the memory even after a long time, vividly recall specific details, able to recall their emotional state at that moment.
Although, flashbulb memory may be less accurate than individuals believe.
Theories of emotions
1) common sense - stimulus -> emotion -> body response
2) James - Lange - stimulus -> body response -> emotion
3) cannon - Bard - stimulus -> body response and emotion together
4) schachter - Singer - stimulus -> body response -> interpretation-> emotion
What the universal emotions?
Happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, surprise
Do not require high level of cognition
Recognized in the whole world despite of culture
Plus contempt (презрение)
What the components of human emotions?
1) cognitive - all the mental processes that accompany the emotion such as thoughts, motivations, beliefs, expectations.
2) behavioral - immediate outward reaction that occurs in response to an emotion suck as smile, gasping.
3) physiological - all the bodily processes that accompany the emotions ( changers in heart rate, respiration rate, sweating)
