P/S Flashcards
Function of retina
To convert light info into neural impulses
Characteristics of central (foveal) Vision
Cones packed at the fovea (ямка), bright lights conditions, color and detail perception, increased visual acuity, fast recovery time:adjust to changes quickly, have opsin proteins that respond to certain wavelength (short-blue, medium green, long red)
Characteristics of peripheral vision
Rods in the peripheral of the retina, dim light conditions, black/white vision, can detect motion, high light sensitivity, slow recovery time, need more time to adjust to a change
What more: rods or cones?
Rods
Photoreceptors differences in visual field
Definition of blind spot
No cones or rodes
Where optic nerve connects to retina so no photoreceptors
What is inside rods?
Optic disc
What does optic disc contain?
Proteins that fire APs to the brain.
It is the region of the retina where both the optic nerve exits and the artery enters.
Known as blind spot (no photoreceptors)
What protein do rods contain?
Rhodopsin
What protein do cones contain?
Photopsin
When light hits the rhodopsin what happens?
Trigger of the phototransduction cascade
…. vision occurs at levels of … light levels
Photopic
High
…. vision occurs at … and involves both rods and cones
Mesotopic
Dawn or dusk
… vision occurs at levels of … light
Scotopic
Very low
Where dopamine targets and its function?
Function: mediates the reward pathway and motor control.
1) Basal ganglia (motor function). Three pathways: direct pathway- excitatory effects on motor functions, indirect pathway - inhibitory effects on motor functions, nigrostriatal pathway - helps to maintain the balance between those two pathways. (destroyed during Parkinson’s)
2) Mesolimbic pathway ( pleasure, award),
3) prefrontal cortex ( motivation, emotions)
Description of Parkinson’s disease
Progressive neurodegenerative disease caused by loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra (basal ganglia) causing tremors, muscle rigidity and shuffling gait
Most antipsychotic are dopamine
Antagonists blocking actions of dopamine
Functions of serotonin
Mood, sleep/wake regulation, appetite. Social dominance/ aggression
What to use to treat Parkinson’s disease?
Dopamine agonist
Corpus callosum function
Allow two hemispheres to communicate
Left hemisphere function?
Language function such as speech production (Broca area) and language comprehension ( wernicke area)
Location of speech production
Broca area in the left hemisphere
Language comprehension location
Wernicke area in the left hemisphere
Function of the each hemisphere
Touch and movement of the opposite hemisphere plus language of the left hemisphere
Split brain syndrome definition
Severed corpus callosum causing wrong inter hemispheric communication
Input from left visual field is processed by right and vice versa is called
Cortical lateralization
Function of occipital cortex
Visual information
Circadian rhythms definition
Cycles in physiological activity (hormone release) that occur over 24 hour intervals
Bio markers of circadian rhythms
Core body temperature ( 38 C at daytime, 36 C just before waking), melatonin (peak during sleep but low during waking), cortisol (peak after waking and low before sleep)
What secretes melatonin?
Pineal gland (шишковидная железа)
Oxytocin is produced by … and released by
Hypothalamus, pituitary gland (гипофиз)
Functions: pair bonding, reproductive behavior, labor and lactation
Sleek wake disorders are
Parasomnia is childhood
Dyssomnia in adulthood
Parasomnia characteristic
Abnormal function of the nervous system during sleep, in childhood, night terrors, somnambulism ( sleepwalking)
Dyssomnia characteristics
Difficulty falling/staying asleep, poor sleep quality, inappropriate sleep timing, involves insomnia (difficulty falling asleep, sleep apnea, narcolepsy (extreme daytime sleepiness), involves disruptions to circadian rhythms
Hypothalamus function
Regulation of the body’s functions (BP, metabolism, appetite, sleep, growth, body T), command center for endocrine system
Function of suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
When light levels are high, the SCN down regulates the production of melatonin and vice versa
What hormones the anterior pituitary release?
Growth hormone, FSH and etc
Posterior pituitary releases what hormones?
Oxytocin, vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone)
Hippocampus function
Formation and storage of memory
Learning
Piagetd theory of cognitive development
Eriksons stage of psychosocial development
How personality is shaped by social interaction
George Herbert Mead theory
Theory of the social self through social interaction with others
Kohlbergs theory of moral development
What system activates during stress?
Sympathetic nervous system ( immediate rehigh release of epinephrine and cortisol, increase of heart rate and BP, high glucose release)
What’s secretes adrenaline and glucocorticoids (cortisol)?
Adrenal glands (надпочечники)
…: involve collecting data over a period of time and can be …
Longitudinal studies,
Experimental or observational
Useful how variable change over time
Crops sectional study definition
Observational study that measures a variable at own time point
Types of perception constancy?
Shape constancy, color constancy ( same color under different lighting conditions), size constancy ( distant objects appear to be the same size as near object), brightness constancy
Top down cognitive process guided by
Experience, expectations, knowledge , beliefs, ideas already stored in our brain influencing perception
Law do continuity
We tend to perceive objects that are in the same row, or lined up as together
Gestalt principles
Subjective contours - how mind fills in the gaps.
Invariance - objects can be recognized despite orientation, lighting, scale.
Common fate - objects that move together are grouped together.
Similarity - objects sharing certain features are grouped together
Proximity - things that are close to one another as a group.
Continuity - perceive element as continuing on a smooth path
Closure - missing information is filled in to complete a figure
Function of cochlea
Inside is organ of Corti, sound processing and transmission of auditory information to the temporal lobe of the brain
Maintenance of spatial orientation and balance depends on
Visual input, vestibular input ( semicircular canals- angular acceleration, and the otolith organs: utricle and saccule - linear acceleration), and somatosensory input (proprioceptors found in skeletal muscles, tendons, skin and joints provide info about the location and movement of body in space)
Sensory input is processed by
Brainstem, cerebral cortex and cerebellum which coordinates balance
Schizophrenia symptoms
Positive - pathological excesses ( hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech and behavior) and negative symptoms - pathological deficits ( apathy, inability to experience pleasure, flat affect, lack of speech)
What drugs are used to treat schizophrenia?
Neuroleptic or atypical antipsychotic medication in reducing positive symptoms. But neuroleptics may worsen negative symptoms while atypical can improve negative symptoms
Psychoactive drugs are
Stimulants, depressants, narcotic analgesics (painkillers/opiates) and hallucinogens
What effects on psychoactive drug have?
On mood, thinking and/or behavior
Depressants are also called as
Anxiolytics as they can reduce anxiety
The principal inhibitory neurotransmitter in the nervous system is
GABA ( works with depressants)
Sleep stages are
NREM (non rapid eye movement 1-4 stages) and REM
Brain activity during REM stage has
An wake, alert state but with the body paralyzed except for the muscles controlling respiration and eye movement
Feature detection means
Perceptual discrimination of specific aspects of a given stimulus via feature detectors which are specific neurons that fire in response to very specific stimuli ( most often during vision - in case of horizontal lines or angles as an ex).
When looking at the object, you need to break it down into its component features to make sense of what you are looking at: color, form, motion.
Sensory adaptation is
Diminished nervous system response by the optic nerve over time to stimuli that remain constant therefore diminished stimulus perception. When a stimulus Durant change, the firing rate of the neuron decreases.
Occurs in the peripheral nervous system.
Spreading activation is
When a node (concept) sighing an individuals semantic networks triggers the activation of other related nodes - priming
False memory in which representation of the presented words activates semantically related words
Just noticeable difference or difference threshold is
Smallest difference between two stimuli that can be detected 50% of the time
Webers law definition
The Rayo of the size of the just noticeable difference to the original stimulus intensity remains constant
Opponent process theory definition
Color vision occurs because of the opposing responses of three sensory receptor complexes ( red-green, blue-yellow, black/white)
Monocular cues are
Depth and motion cues by one eye only and rely on comparisons between objects
Motion parallax - or relative motion, where objects in the foreground perceives to move faster than objects in the background
Stereopsis definition
Perception of depth that arises from the information perceived from the both eyes (binocular depth cues)
Binocular depth cues definition
Accurate perception of depth through the integration of slightly different information from both eyes: retinal disparity- distance between two eyes results in slightly different images projected into the retinas. The closer the object -> more dramatic the disparity. Convergence - occurs because of the angular positioning of the eyes. The closer the object to the observer, the more the eyes turn inward to focus on that object.
Binocular cues are less informative at great distances because retinal disparity and converge decrease as distance decrease.
Good for depth and distance
Accommodation
Modular cue and processed as a depth perception cue, as an object approaches type eye, coloration muscles alter the shape of the lens
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis or linguistic relativity/determinism definition
Language influences and controls our perception and cognition
Nativist hypothesis states that
Language is not learned as the skills but it’s an innate process in the brain
The Young- Helmholtz theory state
Known as trichromatic theory, all the colors we see are the result of the combined activity of three types of photoreceptors ( short wavelengths- blue, medium -green, long-red).
If objects reflects red-> red light hits red cone -> fire AP -> brain is like Oh red
How visual field works?
It has right and left hemifields. The left is processed by the right primary visual cortex and right by the left visual cortex.
Parallel processing definition
Brains ability to simultaneously process the various components of visual stimuli. Information from the retina goes to primary visual cortex of the occipital lobe through the region of the thalamus that received visual input via two separate pathways:
1) parvocellular pathway (what)- good at spatial resolution (boundaries, shape, color). But poor temporal resolution( can’t detect motion, only in stationary). Form and color.
2) magnocellular pathway ( where?)- high temporal resolution ( think time, motion), but no spatial resolution (no color). Rods responsible. Depth and motion.
Detect/focus all information at same time
How color and motion processed?
Both in the retina and processed by the occipital lobe
Types of studies
Function of prefrontal cortex
Executive functions; critical thinking, problem solving, planning, impulse control and decision making, part of frontal lobe ( primary motor cortex and Broca area), modulation of emotions
Cerebellum function
Motor coordination and motor learning
Balance, storage of non declarative memory
Amygdala function
Emotions especially fear and anger
When dreaming occurs?
Most common in REM sleep closer to waking up
Characteristics of sleep stages
Limbus system consists of
Confounding variables
Additional variables that might influence results or outcomes
Limiting confounding variables during experiment results in
Increase of interval validity but decrease in external
Types of validity
Box and whisker plot
Distribution of the data
Confident interval represents a measure of uncertainty in a reported value by indicating how far the value reported from the true value. 95% means true in approximately 95% of the cases.
If notches do not overlap -> medians are significantly different
Monoamine hypothesis
Depletion of monoamine neurotransmitters (serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine - they have a single amine group in their molecular structure) in the CNS causes depression symptoms
Meta analyze should have.. to compare the results
The same methods: measures and criteria
Depression symptoms
Nucleus accumbens is the part of the
Reward pathway in the brain ( which also include ventral regimental area which produces dopamine and portions of the prefrontal cortex)
Differences between SSRI and MAOI antidepressant mechanism
MAOI decrease breakdown of monoamines by inhibiting monoamine oxidase therefore increasing concentration on monoamines in the axon and synaptic cleft.
SSRI block the regulator of serotonin from synaptic cleft into prestnaptic neuron prolonging the oresence of serotonin in the synaptic cleft
How antidepressants function?
Brain lobes and functions
Frontal lobe- executive functions (prefrontal cortex), voluntary motor initiation.
Temporal lobe- learning, memory, auditory processing, Wernicke area.
Occipital lobe - visual processing.
Parietal lobe - proprioception, somatosensation
Place theory definition
Plays a role in auditory processing and exposing the perception of sound pitch ( how high or low a tone is and its frequency). Inside the cochlea, specific sound wavelengths generate basilar membrane vibrations at specific loci. Hair cells located at the base are activated by high frequency, at apex -low frequency waves.
Adaptive value definition
Extent to which a trait or behavior helps an organism survive and reproduce. Traits and behaviors that are innate are genetically determined. Learned behavior is result from observation and experience. Most human behaviors are complex, falling along the continuum from innate to learned.
Bottom up processing is
Sensory input guides perception driven by incoming data often sensory information
Sensory receptors are
Mechanoreceptors
Chemoreceptors
Thermoreceptors
Photoreceptors
Tonic receptors - continue to produce and toon potentials throughout the duration of the stimuli. Found in the peripheral nervous system, not in the brain.
Signal detection theory is
Quantifies the accuracy of decisions made under conditions of uncertainty as when it is difficult to say whether a stimulus is present ( trying to detect a plane on a radar)
Comorbidity is
Simultaneous presentation of two or more psychological disorders ( schizophrenia plus depression)
Correlation coefficient r
Linear relationship between two variables
Mania symptoms
Reduced need for sleep, increased energy or agitation, fight for ideas (rapid thoughts), feelings of grandiosity, distractibility, impulsive behavior
False positive and false negative means
False positive : when the condition is predicted to be present but in reality is absent.
False negative: when the condition is predicted to absent but in reality is present.
Reliability vs validity
Validity refers to the accuracy of a study and measure. Internal - produces true result, external - generalizability, study can be applied outside the lab.
Reliability - experiment or measure can produce similar results every time,
Null hypothesis
Serial processing is memorize …
One piece at a time
Absolute threshold is
Intensity value at which an individual is able to detect the stimulus 50% of the time
Signal detection theory states
How judgments or decisions are made under uncertain conditions amid noise (external or internal distractions)
Operant conditioning
Behavior is associated with a consequence .
Positive reinforcement - a desirable stimulus or outcome is added following a behavior.
Negative reinforcement - undesirable stimulus or outcome is removed following a behavior.
Positive punishment - undesirable stimulus or outcome is added following a behavior.
Negative punishment - desirable stimulus is removed following a behavior
Physical dependence symptoms
Neurochemical changes in the brain, withdrawal symptoms, tolerance
Adrenergic receptors function in
Heart rate, bronchodilation, vasodilation, respond to epinephrine and norepinephrine and in automatic nervous system.
Dopamine reward pathway
Stress hormones are
Cortisol ( steroid hormone released by the cortex of the adrenal gland), epinephrine, norepinephrine
Stress response system
Phi phenomen characteristics
Known as motion picture effect
Is an optical illusion in which a series of still photographs presented in rapid succession appear to be moving.
Perceives motion but not depth
Operant extinction
In operant conditioning
When a reinforced behavior is extinguished entirely
Occurs after the reinforcement stops
If there is still training happening than it’s not operant extinction
