Psychology in media

Question 1

communication

Answer 1

Human communication is a relational activity where symbols are exchanged between parties with an intention, from which meanings emerge. This applies even when a person is talking to themselves, as it involves a form of relational activity (Pearson et al., 2011, p. 10). For example, someone reflecting silently, writing in a personal journal, or talking aloud to unfold a problem is engaging in a communicative process, often to prepare for future interactions with others

Question 2

Context

Answer 2

The framework in which communication occurs, encompassing several dimensions

Question 3

Roles

Answer 3

Communication involves exchanging roles between sender and receiver.

Question 4

Messages

Answer 4

a set of symbols shared by the sender through various channels

Question 5

Channels

Answer 5

The medium through which messages travel

Question 6

Noise

Answer 6

any interference that affects message reception

Question 7

Effects

Answer 7

The outcomes or consequences of communication

Question 8

Intrapersonal Communication

Answer 8

Communication within oneself, often in the form of internal conversations or thoughts

Question 9

Interpersonal Communication

Answer 9

Communication between two or more people, the most frequent mode in daily life

Question 10

Group Communication

Answer 10

Communication among three or more people working toward a common goal

Question 11

Public Communication

Answer 11

Communication where the sender addresses an audience orally or in written form

Question 12

Mass Communication

Answer 12

Communication through traditional media (e.g., TV, radio, newspapers) or new digital platforms like social media

Question 13

Computer-Mediated Communication

Answer 13

Communication that occurs through an interface, usually a computer or mobile device screen

Question 14

Relational Activity

Answer 14

Communication involves the exchange of symbols addressed to someone with an intention, from which meanings emerge

Question 15

Intrapersonal Communication

Answer 15

Even self-communication (e.g., journaling, silent reflection) is relational as it often prepares for interpersonal interactions

Question 16

Symbolic Structure

Answer 16

Uses signs, words, graphics, and gestures.
Symbols are arbitrary, created by people to represent objects, emotions, or situations (Pearson et al., 2011).
Misunderstanding occurs when one party doesn’t grasp the symbolic structure (e.g., unfamiliar language).

Question 17

Complexity of Human Communication:

Answer 17

Human communication is not univocal; messages are subject to varying interpretations.
Communication psychology explores the internal mental processes during the exchange of symbols, including:
Reception: Collecting sensory signals of a message.
Processing: Assigning personal meaning through integration with knowledge, experiences, and emotions.
Effects: Generating responses such as language, gestures, behaviors, attitudes, or internal reflections.

Question 18

Pervasiveness

Answer 18

Emotions influence all communication stages from reception to response.

Question 19

Attitudes as Emotional Drivers:

Answer 19

Attitudes are learned orientations (positive/negative) toward objects, people, or situations.
They shape responses based on:
Sentimental components (trust, hatred, curiosity).
Behavioral components (habits, actions).
Cognitive components (beliefs, values).

Question 20

Cognitive Dissonance:

Answer 20

Emotional discomfort from conflicting ideas (Festinger, 1957).
Drives resolution by opting for alignment with existing beliefs.

Question 21

Weaver’s Definition

Answer 21

Communication is the process by which one mind influences another.

Question 22

Interaction model

Answer 22

Incorporates feedback as a response to received messages.
Communication is seen as an alternating process between sender and receiver.

Relevant in interpersonal and organizational communication, emphasizing feedback loops.

Question 23

Transaction Model

Answer 23

Postulates communication as a simultaneous and cooperative process.
Focuses on creating shared social realities and new meanings.

Essential for studying cultural communication, relationship dynamics, and community building.

Question 24

Linear Model:

Answer 24

Best suited for mass communication and technical message delivery.

Question 25

One Cannot Not Communicate

Answer 25

Explanation:
Every behavior in an interaction conveys a message.
Communication is multi-faceted: verbal, tonal, postural, and contextual modes influence meaning.

Question 26

Content and Relationship Levels in Communication

Answer 26

Explanation:
Communication includes:
Content Level: The literal message.
Relationship Level: Defines how participants understand their relationship.
The relationship level often acts as a “meta-message” that frames the content.

Question 27

The Punctuation of the Sequence of Facts

Answer 27

Explanation:
Communication involves different interpretations (punctuations) of shared situations.
Misaligned punctuations can lead to conflict; aligned ones foster cooperation.

Question 28

Digital and Analogical Communication

Answer 28

Explanation:
Communication occurs on two levels:
Digital: Words and symbols (e.g., verbal language).
Analogical: Non-verbal cues (e.g., gestures, tone, expressions).
These levels can complement or contradict each other.

Question 29

Symmetrical and Complementary Interaction

Answer 29

Explanation:
Relationships are based on two interaction modes:
Symmetrical: Equality-driven; parties mirror each other’s roles and behaviors.
Complementary: Difference-driven; roles are distinct but interdependent.

Question 30

Explicit Communication

Answer 30

Definition: Direct, clear, and precise verbal communication (Yus, 2022, p. 487).
Characteristics:
Open and less ambiguous.
Focused on clarity and precision.
Example: Saying, “I am upset because you missed the meeting.”

Question 31

Implicit Communication

Answer 31

Definition: Indirect, ambiguous, and non-verbal cues conveying meaning (Lausic, 2005, p. 5).
Characteristics:
Covert, puzzling, and relies on inference.
Meaning is often subtle and context-dependent.
Example: A person sighing or avoiding eye contact to signal frustration.

Question 32

Metacommunication

Answer 32

Definition: Communication about communication (Bavelas, 2021, p. 8).
Purpose:
Makes implicit communication explicit.
Clarifies meaning by discussing how the message is delivered and understood.
Example: Asking, “When you said that, did you mean you were upset with me?”

Question 33

Syntactics

Answer 33

Studies the structure of signs and their grammatical relationships.

Question 34

Semantics

Answer 34

Concerns the meaning of symbols and codes (Watzlawick et al., 1967, p. 23).

Question 35

Pragmatics

Answer 35

Explores how communication affects behavior and interaction between speakers and listeners (Hook et al., 2011, p. 107).

Question 36

Perception:

Answer 36

The process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting information (Communication in the Real World, 2016, p. 52).

Guides thoughts, attitudes, behaviors, and decisions.
Shapes personal reality—what is perceived as THE reality is a subjective creation (Taylor, 2019, para. 6; Beauchamp & Baran, 2015, p. 11).

Question 37

Stimulus Selection

Answer 37

Definition: The first stage of perception, focusing attention on specific stimuli.
Salience: Stimuli that stand out from the usual are more likely to capture attention.

Question 38

Stimulus Organization

Answer 38

Definition: Categorizing selected stimuli based on patterns from past experiences

Question 39

Interpretation of Stimuli

Answer 39

Definition: Assigning meaning to selected and organized stimuli based on personal experiences and beliefs.

Question 40

Memory Architecture

Answer 40

The brain’s memory structure is commonly represented by the modal model, consisting of three units: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory (Mcleod, 2017, para. 1).

Question 41

Sensory Memory

Answer 41

Characteristics:
Large storage capacity but very short duration.
Registers sensory information (sight, sound, touch, taste, smell).
Unfocused stimuli are quickly lost.
Role:
Passes focused information to short-term memory for processing.
Example: Recognizing letters in text despite errors or distortions through integration with cues from long-term memory.

Question 42

Short-Term Memory

Answer 42

Characteristics:
Limited capacity: Retains 5–9 items for ~30 seconds.
Functions as a processing hub between sensory and long-term memory.
Process:
Combines cues from sensory memory and long-term memory to assign meaning to stimuli.
Example: Remembering a phone number or short phrase temporarily.

Question 43

Long-Term Memory

Answer 43

Characteristics:
Virtually unlimited capacity and duration.
Stores information permanently for recall and decision-making.

Question 44

Non-Sensory Activation

Answer 44

Internal thoughts, ideas, and emotions can evoke memories or reconstruct episodes.
Emotional states influence memory activation, recalling episodic or semantic memories

Question 45

Neuro-Linguistic Programming

Answer 45

NLP examines how language influences perception and experience (Bandler & Grinder, 1996, p. 46).
Developed in the 1970s by Richard Bandler and John Grinder to model effective therapeutic techniques used by Fritz Perls, Virginia Satir, and Milton Erickson (Krone, 2020, p. 16).
Described as an “attitude with a methodology that leaves behind a trail of techniques”

Question 46

Elimination:

Answer 46

Definition: Filtering out certain aspects of an experience to focus on others.
Examples:
Overlooking a colleague’s request while engrossed in another task.
Focusing solely on a baby’s cry amidst other sounds.
Purpose: Reduces cognitive overload and enables attention to specific signals.

Question 47

Distortion:

Answer 47

Definition: Transforming sensory experiences to fit personal maps of reality.
Examples:
Reframing long work hours as necessary for achieving long-term goals.
Interpreting a delayed text response as disinterest.
Purpose: Can help tolerate discomfort or justify personal positions.

Question 48

Generalization:

Answer 48

Definition: Extending elements of one experience to a broader category.
Examples:
One poor exam experience leads to believing one is bad at the entire subject.
A single positive encounter with someone from a country generalizes that the entire population is friendly.
Purpose: Simplifies complex experiences but can lead to bias.

Question 49

Nonviolent Communication (NVC)

Answer 49

A framework for thinking and communication that fosters empathic connections between people (Rosenberg, 2012, p. 9).
Aims to reduce violence and facilitate conflict resolution by prioritizing understanding and compassion.

Question 50

Empathy

Answer 50

Empathy is being fully present and attentive to others without immediately offering solutions

Question 51

Transactional Analysis (TA)

Answer 51

A communication model developed by Eric Berne to create healthier and more enriching communication processes.
Focus:
Examine the intention behind communicative acts.
Address manipulative or contradictory responses

Question 52

Ego States

Answer 52

Defined as systems of feelings and behavioral patterns that influence communication.
Transactions occur when the ego state of one person interacts with another’s ego state (Hill et al., 2007, p. 27).

Question 53

Objective Content:

Answer 53

The factual information conveyed in the message.

Question 54

Relationship:

Answer 54

Reflects how the sender views or relates to the receiver.

Question 55

Self-Disclosure:

Answer 55

Conveys the sender’s emotional state or personal perspective.

Question 56

Appeal

Answer 56

Represents the sender’s intention or desired response from the receiver.