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Abnormal Psychology > Concepts of psychology > Flashcards

Concepts of psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

Psychology

A

is a scientific and
systematic study of individuals’
mental processes, behavior, and
experience in natural or nurtured
conditions

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2
Q

perceptual processes.

A

People experience the external environment through

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3
Q

Sensory receptors

A

(e.g., eyes, ears, skin) convert stimulus energy into neural signals and transmit them to the brain (steps 2–4).

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4
Q

Perception

A

follows sensation: it is the interpretation of stimuli received by sensory organs

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5
Q

Action

A

is the physical response to environmental stimuli (steps 5–6).

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6
Q

Sensation

A

collecting signals from the environment.

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7
Q

visible spectrum

A

is limited to wavelengths between 400 and 700 nanometers (Gerrig et al., 2015).

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8
Q

Memory

A

is viewed like a computer that receives, stores, encodes, and retrieves information

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9
Q

Long-term memory

A

Stores information permanently with relatively unlimited capacity

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10
Q

Chunking

A

A technique for increasing STM capacity by grouping information into meaningful units

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11
Q

Recency effect

A

Recently presented information is remembered better than earlier information

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12
Q

Spaced repetition

A

Involves extending review periods over time to reinforce memory

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13
Q

Attention

A

Focused awareness of available perceptual information. It plays a crucial role in processing stimuli from the external environment (e.g., noticing your name in a loud room, a phenomenon known as the cocktail party effect).

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14
Q

Split-attention effect:

A

The brain processes visual and auditory information through separate channels. Focusing on multiple information sources simultaneously can increase cognitive load and harm learning effectiveness (Ayres & Sweller, 2005).

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15
Q

Figure-ground perception:

A

The ability to focus on objects while distinguishing them from the background (e.g., seeing a tree or faces depending on perception).

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16
Q

Selective attention

A

allows people to focus on a specific task while filtering out irrelevant stimuli (e.g., reading in a noisy environment).

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17
Q

Inattentional blindness:

A

Inattentional blindness:

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18
Q

Problem-solving

A

is the cognitive process of moving from an unsatisfactory condition to a desired state using optimal strategies

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19
Q

principle of transformation

A

stimuli and responses created by stimuli are transformed, or changed between the environmental stimulus and perception

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20
Q

Behaviorism

A

Focuses on observable behavior influenced by external stimuli. Key figures: Pavlov, Skinner, Watson.

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21
Q

Cognitivism & Constructivism:

A

Emphasize active knowledge construction. Key theorists: Vygotsky (social learning), Harel & Papert (constructivism).

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22
Q

constuctivism

A

Learners actively construct knowledge through experience (Vygotsky, 1978; Schunk, 2012).
Emphasizes meaningful learning shaped by social and cultural contexts (O’Donnell, 2012).

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23
Q

classical conditioning

A

Pavlov’s experiment with dogs illustrates how pairing stimuli can lead to conditioned responses (Clark, 2004).

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24
Q

operant conditioning

A

Skinner’s experiments show how behavior is shaped through reinforcement and punishment (Gerrig et al., 2015).

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25
Q

social learning theory

A

Learning occurs through observing and imitating others (Bandura & Walters, 1977).

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26
Q

Intelligence

A

General competence involving thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving (Gottfredson, 1997).
Intelligence is influenced by cultural and environmental factors (Neisser et al., 1996).

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27
Q

positive reinforcement

A

The presence of a pleasant stimulus is increased, such as receiving rewards.)

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28
Q

positive punishment

A

The future response is followed by an unpleasant stimulus, such as pain and getting caugh

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29
Q

negative reinforcement

A

The presence of an unpleasant stimulus is decreased, such as using a fan to escape the heat.)

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30
Q

negative punishment

A

The future response is followed by removing a wanted stimulus, such as no dessert when refusing to eat carrots.)

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31
Q

Intrinsic motivation

A

Motivation driven by internal factors like personal interests, enthusiasm, and curiosity.
Examples: Playing football for the sheer joy and excitement of the game or engaging in a hobby because it is personally fulfilling.

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32
Q

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

A

A motivational theory that explains human behavior as driven by a hierarchy of needs.
Needs are arranged in a pyramid, starting from the most basic physiological needs to self-fulfillment needs.

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33
Q

Physiological Needs

A

Basic needs essential for survival: food, water, sleep, warmth, and air.
These needs must be met before individuals can focus on higher-level needs.
Example: Seeking food and shelter when hungry or tired.

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34
Q

Safety Needs

A

Needs related to security and protection: personal safety, financial security, health, and well-being.
Example: Desiring a safe living environment or a stable job.

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35
Q

Social and Love Needs

A

Psychological needs for belonging, intimacy, friendship, and love.
Example: Seeking meaningful connections with friends, family, or colleagues.
Individuals feel motivated to build social bonds and experience love and acceptance.

36
Q

Esteem Needs

A

Needs related to self-esteem, respect from others, and a sense of accomplishment.
Example: Aspiring to gain recognition for professional skills or being respected in a community.
Esteem needs are divided into:
Self-esteem: Confidence in one’s abilities.
Recognition: Desiring status, prestige, or admiration from others.

37
Q

Self-Actualization Needs

A

The highest level, involving the realization of personal potential and self-fulfillment.
People at this stage seek to achieve their full capabilities and find meaning in life.
Example: An artist pursuing their passion, a scientist making groundbreaking discoveries, or an athlete striving for peak performance.
Only a small percentage of people reach this stage.

38
Q

Emotions

A

Emotions are psychological and physiological states that change based on external and internal events.
People experience and describe various emotions daily, such as happiness, sadness, stress, or sickness (Plutchik, 2001).
Emotions involve physiological arousal, often driven by the autonomic nervous system, which has evolved to enhance survival (Gerrig et al., 2015).
Example: Encountering a snake might cause fear, which triggers a racing heart, prompting a fight-or-flight response.

39
Q

Stimuli and Emotional Response

A

External events or stimuli trigger emotional arousal, which leads to behavioral changes. Emotions influence decisions, interactions, and overall behavior.

40
Q

Social Perception

A

The process by which individuals collect, interpret, and understand the behavior of others in social settings (Gerrig et al., 2015).
Social perception is influenced by personal beliefs and expectations (Aronson et al., 1994).
People often rely on automatic thinking for efficiency rather than reflective thinking (Kahneman, 2011).

41
Q

Self-Fulfilling Prophecies

A

Concept: When people’s expectations about others influence their behaviors toward those individuals, causing the expectations to become reality (Gerrig et al., 2015).
Example:
Initial impressions of friends can shape interactions and outcom

42
Q

Attribution Theory

A

Origin: Introduced by Heider (1958) to explain how people make judgments about the causes of behavior.

43
Q

Internal Attribution

A

Behavior is attributed to a person’s traits, attitudes, or personality.
Example: Assuming someone who donates money is generous.

44
Q

External Attribution

A

Behavior is attributed to situational factors or external stimuli.
Example: Assuming the donation was done to impress others.

45
Q

Social Influence

A

A psychological phenomenon where social forces impact attitudes, judgments, decisions, or behaviors (Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004).
Example: Media campaigns influence perceptions, like how advertising affects young women’s body image and may increase body dissatisfaction (Myers & Biocca, 1992; Devine et al., 2021).

46
Q

Informational Social Influence

A

Conforming to others’ behaviors in ambiguous or important situations to obtain correct information and reduce uncertainty

47
Q

Normative Social Influence

A

Definition: Conforming to gain social approval or avoid rejection (Aronson et al., 1994).
People conform to be liked, accepted, or to maintain group harmony.

48
Q

Pain and Discomfort

A

The fight-or-flight response is triggered when humans face threats or discomfort (McCarty, 2016).
People may become aggressive when experiencing unexpected pain or discomfort (Berkowitz, 1989).
Example: Heat and Violence – Hot weather correlates with higher crime rates, such as increased violence during summer (Anderson, 1989, 2001).

49
Q

Social Situations

A

Negative emotions like anger, frustration, and fear are often precursors to aggression (Averill, 2012; Berkowitz, 1989).
Example: Traffic jams may provoke frustration and aggressive behaviors (Tyson, 1998).
Provocations and high-stress situations, such as war, lead to widespread aggression, with lasting effects even post-conflict (Archer & Gartner, 1992; Akresh et al., 2012).

50
Q

Aggressive Behavior

A

Definition: Aggressive behavior involves intentional actions, either verbal or physical, aimed at causing psychological or physical harm to others (Geen, 1999a).
Examples: Physical violence (e.g., fighting, shooting), verbal insults, sexual harassment, and rumor-spreading.

51
Q

Social Norms

A

Shared expectations regarding acceptable behaviors and attitudes within a group

52
Q

Social Loafing Theory

A

Definition: Social loafing refers to the tendency for people to put in less effort when working in a group compared to working alone (Comer, 1995).
Example: An individual may work harder on a solo exam but slack off in a group project where individual contributions are less visible.

53
Q

Stereotypes

A

Definition: Cognitive generalizations about a group, attributing certain traits to all members of that group (Devine, 1989).
Examples: Gendered expectations about preschool teachers or data scientists based on societal norms.
Impact: Stereotypes simplify complex social information but often result in inaccurate judgments.

54
Q

Prejudice

A

Definition: The affective (emotional) component of bias, characterized by negative feelings toward a group based on unfounded judgments (Gee & Peck, 2017).
Examples: Negative attitudes toward ethnic groups, gender biases, ageism, or stigma against those with mental illnesses

55
Q

Discrimination

A

Definition: The behavioral component of bias, where actions harm or disadvantage members of specific groups (Aronson et al., 1994).
Examples: Gender discrimination in pay and promotions

56
Q

Prosocial Behavior

A

A broad range of actions aimed at benefiting others, such as helping, donating, sharing, and volunteering

57
Q

Altruism

A

A specific form of prosocial behavior where a person helps others even at a personal cost

58
Q

Applied Psychology

A

Applied psychology refers to the use of psychological principles to solve practical problems across various domains, such as:
Economics & Business Administration
Human Resources (HR)
Health & Educational Psychology
Clinical, Counseling, and Forensic Psychology
Sports Psychology
Ergonomics

59
Q

Industrial-Organizational (I-O) Psychology

A

Industrial Division: Focuses on job analysis, recruitment, performance, and training.
Organizational Division: Investigates motivation, job satisfaction, leadership, and workplace well-being.
I-O psychologists aim to understand and optimize human behavior in work environments by applying evidence-based principles.

60
Q

Industrial-Organizational

A

A branch of applied psychology centered on enhancing employee productivity and workplace conditions.

61
Q

Work Analysis

A

A systematic method for providing detailed job information, specifying essential worker competencies

62
Q

Job Evaluation

A

Systematic process for determining the monetary value of a job relative to others in the organization

63
Q

internal equity

A

comparing job responsibilities and demands within the organization

64
Q

external equity

A

comparing jobs to similar positions in the market

65
Q

Motivation

A

Motivation in a work context is described as the inner force driving an employee’s work-related behaviors to achieve goals (Locke & Latham, 2002).
The understanding of motivation differs per individual, with some associating it with intrinsic needs, while others see it as an internal force guiding work-related decisions.

66
Q

Goal-Setting Theory

A

People are motivated by specific, challenging goals (Locke & Latham, 2002, 2006). Goals act as internal objectives that direct behavior.

67
Q

Two-Factor Theory

A

Proposes two sets of factors influencing job attitudes

68
Q

Job satisfaction

A

The extent to which an individual likes or enjoys their job (Faragher, 2013; Spector, 1997). It encompasses positive emotional responses to work and is multi-dimensional, including:

Affective Commitment: Emotional attachment to the organization.
Continuance Commitment: Awareness of the costs associated with leaving.
Normative Commitment: Feeling obliged to stay.

69
Q

Work Stress

A

A physical and psychological reaction to conflicts between work demands and resources (Bickford, 2005; Lazarus, 2000).
Stress arises from both internal (e.g., beliefs, motives) and external (e.g., threats, harm) factors.

70
Q

Organizations

A

Organizations vary in size, from small local setups like convenience stores to large multinational corporations (e.g., oil giants).
Managing complexity increases with organizational size.
Organizational psychology helps managers address practical challenges by leveraging psychological insights.

71
Q

organization

A

An organization is a social entity where individuals collaborate to achieve a common mission.

72
Q

Organizational Climate

A

Refers to employees’ shared perceptions of the work environment, influencing behaviors positively or negatively

73
Q

Organizational Culture

A

Involves shared assumptions, norms, values, beliefs, roles, and experiences within an organization (Schneider et al., 2013).
Shapes how employees behave and interact.
Reflects the social context of the workplace.

74
Q

Organizational Climate

A

Refers to employees’ shared perceptions of the work environment, influencing behaviors positively or negatively

75
Q

Performance Feedback

A

Provides employees with information on their performance (Klueger & DeNisi, 1996, 2000).
Characteristics of Effective Feedback:
Focus on objective behaviors, not personal traits.
Provide actionable details tied to the employee’s goals.
Use performance appraisal systems for tracking progress and improvement

76
Q

Active Listening

A

Goes beyond passive hearing to fully understand the speaker’s message

77
Q

Team Formation

A

Teams are formed when tasks require interdependence and collaboration among three or more individuals (Devine et al., 1999; Ilgen et al., 2005).
Members share:
Identification: A collective sense of belonging.
Rights and Responsibilities: Defined roles and mutual accountability.

78
Q

Organizational Conflict

A

Refers to psychological and behavioral reactions caused by:
Friction and tension from actual or perceived differences in perspectives, claims, interests, and goals (Kolb & Putnam, 1992).
Varies in understanding and interpretation depending on the context and situation.

79
Q

Individual Conflict

A

Arises when a person’s path to achieving goals is blocked or challenged.
Example: Work–Family Role Conflict:
Can negatively impact employee well-being and life satisfaction (Lu et al., 2006).
Sources:
Internal obstacles or competing demands between personal and work roles.

80
Q

Intragroup Conflict

A

occurs between individuals within a group.
Sources:
Fairness, work autonomy, discrimination, and ethical issues.
Impact:
Negatively affects job satisfaction and task agreement within teams

81
Q

Intergroup Conflict

A

Arises between competing groups or departments.
Example:
Conflict between the marketing and finance teams competing over budgets or resources.
Focus:
Often tied to resource allocation, departmental goals, or competition.

82
Q

Training and Workshops

A

Equip employees with interpersonal skills to resolve conflicts effectively

83
Q

Intergroup Conflict Resolution

A

Strategies include emphasizing common goals and building trust between groups.

84
Q

Win-Win Resolution

A

Focuses on achieving mutually beneficial outcomes for all parties

85
Q

Mergers

A

the integration of two or more organizations of similar size to form a single entity.
Example: Companies A and B merge to reduce costs and unlock synergies across markets, customers, and products.
Partnership is relatively equal.
Goal: Create a combined organization worth more than the original entities

86
Q

Acquisitions

A

A larger organization (acquirer) purchases the assets or shares of a smaller organization (target).
Acquirer gains tangible and intangible assets (e.g., brand, licenses, intellectual property) to expand with minimized risks.
Target company loses ownership and becomes part of the acquiring organization

87
Q
A

Abnormal Psychology (14 decks)

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