Concepts of psychology Flashcards
Psychology
is a scientific and
systematic study of individuals’
mental processes, behavior, and
experience in natural or nurtured
conditions
perceptual processes.
People experience the external environment through
priming
refers to a psychological phenomenon where exposure to a stimulus (in this case, a keyword) influences your response to a subsequent stimulus, such as an answer choice. In the context of examination items, a keyword that hints at the answer can act as a prime to help you retrieve the correct information.
Sensory receptors
(e.g., eyes, ears, skin) convert stimulus energy into neural signals and transmit them to the brain (steps 2–4).
Perception
follows sensation: it is the interpretation of stimuli received by sensory organs
Action
is the physical response to environmental stimuli (steps 5–6).
Sensation
collecting signals from the environment.
visible spectrum
is limited to wavelengths between 400 and 700 nanometers (Gerrig et al., 2015).
Memory
is viewed like a computer that receives, stores, encodes, and retrieves information
Long-term memory
Stores information permanently with relatively unlimited capacity
Chunking
A technique for increasing STM capacity by grouping information into meaningful units
Recency effect
Recently presented information is remembered better than earlier information
Spaced repetition
Involves extending review periods over time to reinforce memory
Attention
Focused awareness of available perceptual information. It plays a crucial role in processing stimuli from the external environment (e.g., noticing your name in a loud room, a phenomenon known as the cocktail party effect).
Split-attention effect:
The brain processes visual and auditory information through separate channels. Focusing on multiple information sources simultaneously can increase cognitive load and harm learning effectiveness (Ayres & Sweller, 2005).
Figure-ground perception:
The ability to focus on objects while distinguishing them from the background (e.g., seeing a tree or faces depending on perception).
Selective attention
allows people to focus on a specific task while filtering out irrelevant stimuli (e.g., reading in a noisy environment).
Inattentional blindness:
or perceptual blindness occurs when an individual fails to perceive an unexpected stimulus in plain sight, purely as a result of a lack of attention rather than any vision defects or deficits. Inattentional blindness:
Problem-solving
is the cognitive process of moving from an unsatisfactory condition to a desired state using optimal strategies
principle of transformation
stimuli and responses created by stimuli are transformed, or changed between the environmental stimulus and perception
Behaviorism
Focuses on observable behavior influenced by external stimuli. Key figures: Pavlov, Skinner, Watson.
Cognitivism & Constructivism:
Emphasize active knowledge construction. Key theorists: Vygotsky (social learning), Harel & Papert (constructivism).
constuctivism
Learners actively construct knowledge through experience (Vygotsky, 1978; Schunk, 2012).
Emphasizes meaningful learning shaped by social and cultural contexts (O’Donnell, 2012).
classical conditioning
Pavlov’s experiment with dogs illustrates how pairing stimuli can lead to conditioned responses (Clark, 2004).
operant conditioning
Skinner’s experiments show how behavior is shaped through reinforcement and punishment (Gerrig et al., 2015).
social learning theory
Learning occurs through observing and imitating others (Bandura & Walters, 1977).
Intelligence
General competence involving thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving (Gottfredson, 1997).
Intelligence is influenced by cultural and environmental factors (Neisser et al., 1996).
positive reinforcement
The presence of a pleasant stimulus is increased, such as receiving rewards.)
positive punishment
The future response is followed by an unpleasant stimulus, such as pain and getting caugh
negative reinforcement
The presence of an unpleasant stimulus is decreased, such as using a fan to escape the heat.)
negative punishment
The future response is followed by removing a wanted stimulus, such as no dessert when refusing to eat carrots.)
Intrinsic motivation
Motivation driven by internal factors like personal interests, enthusiasm, and curiosity.
Examples: Playing football for the sheer joy and excitement of the game or engaging in a hobby because it is personally fulfilling.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
A motivational theory that explains human behavior as driven by a hierarchy of needs.
Needs are arranged in a pyramid, starting from the most basic physiological needs to self-fulfillment needs.
Physiological Needs
Basic needs essential for survival: food, water, sleep, warmth, and air.
These needs must be met before individuals can focus on higher-level needs.
Example: Seeking food and shelter when hungry or tired.
Safety Needs
Needs related to security and protection: personal safety, financial security, health, and well-being.
Example: Desiring a safe living environment or a stable job.
Social and Love Needs
Psychological needs for belonging, intimacy, friendship, and love.
Example: Seeking meaningful connections with friends, family, or colleagues.
Individuals feel motivated to build social bonds and experience love and acceptance.
Esteem Needs
Needs related to self-esteem, respect from others, and a sense of accomplishment.
Example: Aspiring to gain recognition for professional skills or being respected in a community.
Esteem needs are divided into:
Self-esteem: Confidence in one’s abilities.
Recognition: Desiring status, prestige, or admiration from others.
Self-Actualization Needs
The highest level, involving the realization of personal potential and self-fulfillment.
People at this stage seek to achieve their full capabilities and find meaning in life.
Example: An artist pursuing their passion, a scientist making groundbreaking discoveries, or an athlete striving for peak performance.
Only a small percentage of people reach this stage.
Emotions
Emotions are psychological and physiological states that change based on external and internal events.
People experience and describe various emotions daily, such as happiness, sadness, stress, or sickness (Plutchik, 2001).
Emotions involve physiological arousal, often driven by the autonomic nervous system, which has evolved to enhance survival (Gerrig et al., 2015).
Example: Encountering a snake might cause fear, which triggers a racing heart, prompting a fight-or-flight response.
Stimuli and Emotional Response
External events or stimuli trigger emotional arousal, which leads to behavioral changes. Emotions influence decisions, interactions, and overall behavior.
Social Perception
The process by which individuals collect, interpret, and understand the behavior of others in social settings (Gerrig et al., 2015).
Social perception is influenced by personal beliefs and expectations (Aronson et al., 1994).
People often rely on automatic thinking for efficiency rather than reflective thinking (Kahneman, 2011).
Self-Fulfilling Prophecies
Concept: When people’s expectations about others influence their behaviors toward those individuals, causing the expectations to become reality (Gerrig et al., 2015).
Example:
Initial impressions of friends can shape interactions and outcom
Attribution Theory
Origin: Introduced by Heider (1958) to explain how people make judgments about the causes of behavior.
Internal Attribution
Behavior is attributed to a person’s traits, attitudes, or personality.
Example: Assuming someone who donates money is generous.
External Attribution
Behavior is attributed to situational factors or external stimuli.
Example: Assuming the donation was done to impress others.
Social Influence
A psychological phenomenon where social forces impact attitudes, judgments, decisions, or behaviors (Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004).
Example: Media campaigns influence perceptions, like how advertising affects young women’s body image and may increase body dissatisfaction (Myers & Biocca, 1992; Devine et al., 2021).
Informational Social Influence
Conforming to others’ behaviors in ambiguous or important situations to obtain correct information and reduce uncertainty
Normative Social Influence
Definition: Conforming to gain social approval or avoid rejection (Aronson et al., 1994).
People conform to be liked, accepted, or to maintain group harmony.
Pain and Discomfort
The fight-or-flight response is triggered when humans face threats or discomfort (McCarty, 2016).
People may become aggressive when experiencing unexpected pain or discomfort (Berkowitz, 1989).
Example: Heat and Violence – Hot weather correlates with higher crime rates, such as increased violence during summer (Anderson, 1989, 2001).
Social Situations
Negative emotions like anger, frustration, and fear are often precursors to aggression (Averill, 2012; Berkowitz, 1989).
Example: Traffic jams may provoke frustration and aggressive behaviors (Tyson, 1998).
Provocations and high-stress situations, such as war, lead to widespread aggression, with lasting effects even post-conflict (Archer & Gartner, 1992; Akresh et al., 2012).
Aggressive Behavior
Definition: Aggressive behavior involves intentional actions, either verbal or physical, aimed at causing psychological or physical harm to others (Geen, 1999a).
Examples: Physical violence (e.g., fighting, shooting), verbal insults, sexual harassment, and rumor-spreading.
Social Norms
Shared expectations regarding acceptable behaviors and attitudes within a group
Social Loafing Theory
Definition: Social loafing refers to the tendency for people to put in less effort when working in a group compared to working alone (Comer, 1995).
Example: An individual may work harder on a solo exam but slack off in a group project where individual contributions are less visible.
Stereotypes
Definition: Cognitive generalizations about a group, attributing certain traits to all members of that group (Devine, 1989).
Examples: Gendered expectations about preschool teachers or data scientists based on societal norms.
Impact: Stereotypes simplify complex social information but often result in inaccurate judgments.
Prejudice
Definition: The affective (emotional) component of bias, characterized by negative feelings toward a group based on unfounded judgments (Gee & Peck, 2017).
Examples: Negative attitudes toward ethnic groups, gender biases, ageism, or stigma against those with mental illnesses
Discrimination
Definition: The behavioral component of bias, where actions harm or disadvantage members of specific groups (Aronson et al., 1994).
Examples: Gender discrimination in pay and promotions
Prosocial Behavior
A broad range of actions aimed at benefiting others, such as helping, donating, sharing, and volunteering
Altruism
A specific form of prosocial behavior where a person helps others even at a personal cost
Applied Psychology
Applied psychology refers to the use of psychological principles to solve practical problems across various domains, such as:
Economics & Business Administration
Human Resources (HR)
Health & Educational Psychology
Clinical, Counseling, and Forensic Psychology
Sports Psychology
Ergonomics
Industrial-Organizational (I-O) Psychology
Industrial Division: Focuses on job analysis, recruitment, performance, and training.
Organizational Division: Investigates motivation, job satisfaction, leadership, and workplace well-being.
I-O psychologists aim to understand and optimize human behavior in work environments by applying evidence-based principles.
Industrial-Organizational
A branch of applied psychology centered on enhancing employee productivity and workplace conditions.
Work Analysis
A systematic method for providing detailed job information, specifying essential worker competencies
Job Evaluation
Systematic process for determining the monetary value of a job relative to others in the organization
internal equity
comparing job responsibilities and demands within the organization
external equity
comparing jobs to similar positions in the market
Motivation
Motivation in a work context is described as the inner force driving an employee’s work-related behaviors to achieve goals (Locke & Latham, 2002).
The understanding of motivation differs per individual, with some associating it with intrinsic needs, while others see it as an internal force guiding work-related decisions.
Goal-Setting Theory
People are motivated by specific, challenging goals (Locke & Latham, 2002, 2006). Goals act as internal objectives that direct behavior.
Two-Factor Theory
Proposes two sets of factors influencing job attitudes
Job satisfaction
The extent to which an individual likes or enjoys their job (Faragher, 2013; Spector, 1997). It encompasses positive emotional responses to work and is multi-dimensional, including:
Affective Commitment: Emotional attachment to the organization.
Continuance Commitment: Awareness of the costs associated with leaving.
Normative Commitment: Feeling obliged to stay.
Work Stress
A physical and psychological reaction to conflicts between work demands and resources (Bickford, 2005; Lazarus, 2000).
Stress arises from both internal (e.g., beliefs, motives) and external (e.g., threats, harm) factors.
Organizations
Organizations vary in size, from small local setups like convenience stores to large multinational corporations (e.g., oil giants).
Managing complexity increases with organizational size.
Organizational psychology helps managers address practical challenges by leveraging psychological insights.
organization
An organization is a social entity where individuals collaborate to achieve a common mission.
Organizational Climate
Refers to employees’ shared perceptions of the work environment, influencing behaviors positively or negatively
Organizational Culture
Involves shared assumptions, norms, values, beliefs, roles, and experiences within an organization (Schneider et al., 2013).
Shapes how employees behave and interact.
Reflects the social context of the workplace.
Organizational Climate
Refers to employees’ shared perceptions of the work environment, influencing behaviors positively or negatively
Performance Feedback
Provides employees with information on their performance (Klueger & DeNisi, 1996, 2000).
Characteristics of Effective Feedback:
Focus on objective behaviors, not personal traits.
Provide actionable details tied to the employee’s goals.
Use performance appraisal systems for tracking progress and improvement
Active Listening
Goes beyond passive hearing to fully understand the speaker’s message
Team Formation
Teams are formed when tasks require interdependence and collaboration among three or more individuals (Devine et al., 1999; Ilgen et al., 2005).
Members share:
Identification: A collective sense of belonging.
Rights and Responsibilities: Defined roles and mutual accountability.
Organizational Conflict
Refers to psychological and behavioral reactions caused by:
Friction and tension from actual or perceived differences in perspectives, claims, interests, and goals (Kolb & Putnam, 1992).
Varies in understanding and interpretation depending on the context and situation.
Individual Conflict
Arises when a person’s path to achieving goals is blocked or challenged.
Example: Work–Family Role Conflict:
Can negatively impact employee well-being and life satisfaction (Lu et al., 2006).
Sources:
Internal obstacles or competing demands between personal and work roles.
Intragroup Conflict
occurs between individuals within a group.
Sources:
Fairness, work autonomy, discrimination, and ethical issues.
Impact:
Negatively affects job satisfaction and task agreement within teams
Intergroup Conflict
Arises between competing groups or departments.
Example:
Conflict between the marketing and finance teams competing over budgets or resources.
Focus:
Often tied to resource allocation, departmental goals, or competition.
Training and Workshops
Equip employees with interpersonal skills to resolve conflicts effectively
Intergroup Conflict Resolution
Strategies include emphasizing common goals and building trust between groups.
Win-Win Resolution
Focuses on achieving mutually beneficial outcomes for all parties
Mergers
the integration of two or more organizations of similar size to form a single entity.
Example: Companies A and B merge to reduce costs and unlock synergies across markets, customers, and products.
Partnership is relatively equal.
Goal: Create a combined organization worth more than the original entities
Acquisitions
A larger organization (acquirer) purchases the assets or shares of a smaller organization (target).
Acquirer gains tangible and intangible assets (e.g., brand, licenses, intellectual property) to expand with minimized risks.
Target company loses ownership and becomes part of the acquiring organization
