Psychology III Flashcards
Define sensation
The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent
stimulus energies from the environment
define perception
Process by which the brain organizes and interprets sensory information: Translating
the sensory input into something meaningful
Why are sensation and perception often hard to seperate?
Because they happen at more or or less the same time
What is bottom up processing
Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information
What is top down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
What are sense receptors
Specialized cells that convert physical energy in the environment or the body to electrical energy that can be transmitted as nerve impulses to the brain
What is transduction
Conversion of one form of energy
into another
The first of three steps basic to all sensory systems:
*Receiving sensory stimulation
through sense receptors
*Transforming stimulus
energies into neural impulses
(transduction)
*Delivering neural information
to the brain
What is psychophysics
The study of how physical stimuli are translated into psychological experience
What did Gustave fechner question? What concept does this refer to?
for any given sense, what is the
weakest detectable stimulus? threshold
What is the absolute threshold?
The minimum amount of stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
What is the subliminal threshold?
Stimuli that are too weak to detect 50% of the time: Input below the absolute threshold for conscious awareness
What is signal detection theory
Predicts how and when we will detect a faint
stimulus amid background noise
Individual absolute thresholds vary
depending on
-the strength of the signal
-impact on our psychological
states (personal experience,
expectations, motivation, and
alertness)
-circumstances
The detection of sensory information is influenced by two things:
1) Noise in the system (irrelevant
stimuli in the environment that elicit
neural activity)
2) Decision-making processes
What four outcomes are possible when attempting to detect the presence of weak signals
- Person detects a signal that was present (hit)
- Person says the signal was there when it
wasn’t (false alarm) - Person fails to detect the signal when it was
present (miss) - Person correctly says that the signal was
absent when it was absent (correct rejection)
What is the difference threshold (JND)
The smallest difference in stimulation that can reliably be detected by an observer when two stimuli are compared
What is Weber’s law
For an average person to perceive a difference, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (not a constant amount); the exact proportion varies, depending on the stimulus
What is sensory adaption
Reduction or disappearance of sensory
responsiveness when stimulation is
unchanging or repetitious (e.g., a pool
is only cold at first)
What is a preceptual set
A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
What determines a perceptual set
Schemas organize and interpret unfamiliar information through experience
What is wavelength
The distance between the peaks or troughs
What does wavelength effect with vision
colour
What does amplitude effect
intensity
What is frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that can pass a point in a given time, depends on the length of the wave
The ___________ the wavelength,
the _______ the frequency
shorter;higher
Wavelength impacts the _______ of sound
pitch
What is hue?
Dimension of color that is determined by the
wavelength of light
What is brightness
Dimension of visual experience related to the amount or intensity of light emitted from or reflected by an object
What is saturation
Dimension of visual experience related to
the complexity of light waves
What are the two main purposes of the eye
1) Providing a “house” for the neural tissue that receives light―the retina―and, 2)
channeling light toward the retina
What is the retina
is a piece of neural tissue that lines the back of the eye: It absorbs light, processes images,
and sends information to the brain
What is the cornea
a transparent window where light enters the eye: Protects eye and bends light toward lens
What is the lens
is a crystalline structure that lies right behind the cornea and focuses the light rays on the
retina: Focuses on objects by changing shape (accommodation)
What is the fovea
tiny spot in center of
optic disc containing only cones
(This is where visual acuity is
greatest)
What are ganglion cells
Neurons in the retina that gather information from receptor cells
what is the optic nerve
The nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
How many cones and rods
cones: 6-8 million
rods: 120-125 million
during the day we see best at the _________ of our eye. At night we see best at the__________ of our eye
center;side
How long does it take cones to adapt? Rods?
10 min; 20 min
Light energy triggers chemical
changes in the _________________,
which activate the __________ cells
These cells then activate the
ganglion cells of the _______________,
which transmits the neural
impulses from the eye to the brain
Rods and cones; bipolar; optic nerve
What is the pathway of light
Light > rods and cones > neural
signals > bipolar cells > ganglion
cells > optic nerve > optic
chiasm > opposite half brain >
The optic Chiasm
is where the optic nerves from the
inside half of each eye cross over and project to the opposite half brain
What are the two pathways in the brain for vision
*The main pathway goes through
the lateral geniculate nucleus in
the thalamus and on to the primary
visual cortex in the occipital lobe
*The other goes through the
superior colliculus to the thalamus
and on to the primary visual cortex
Trichromatic theory
This theory holds that the
human eye has three types of
receptors (cones) with differing
sensitivities to different light
wavelengths―one for red, one
for green, and one for blue
Deuteranopia
green colourblindness
Protonopia
less sensitive to red
Tritanopia
yellow colour blindness
opponent process theory
*Suggested that the visual system
treats pairs of colors as opposing
or antagonistic
*Three opponent pairs: red/green;
blue/yellow; black/white
*E.g., red on, green off; yellow on,
blue off; black on, white off
opponent process theory can be demonstrated with
negative afterimage
How does negative afterimage work
-ganglions fire at normal rate
*If they fire more rapidly, one color is
activated
*If they fire more slowly, the opposing
color is activated
*If we stare at something for a while,
our eyes adapt: They then
overcompensate when we change
complimentary colours are
opposite on colour wheel
If the colors are the same (alfredo
sauce on a white plate, or marinara
sauce on a red plate), serving sizes
______________ 22%
increased
visual processing
an active process and involves many types
of cells in different brain regions
feature detector cells
Nerve cells in the visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such
as its shape, angle, or movement
what cells specifically respond to facial recognition
grandmother cells
According to feature detection
theory,
people detect specific
elements in stimuli and build
them up into recognizable forms
― bottom-up processing
visual agnosia
perceives features of
objects, but an inability to recognize
the whole objects they are a part of,
and prosopagnosia is an inability to
recognize faces
Gestalt psychologists emphasize
Gestalt psychologists emphasize our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes
Figure-ground:
Organization of the
visual field into objects that stand out
from their surroundings
What is grouping
Grouping: Perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into meaningful groups based on Gestalt principles of form perception (e.g., proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, and
simplicity)
What are the principles of grouping:
Proximity
Closure
Similarity
Continuity
Simplicity
depth perception
What is proximity grouping
things near each other tend to be grouped together
What is closure grouping
the brain fills in gaps to perceive
complete, whole object
What is similarity grouping
things that are alike are perceived
together
What is continuity grouping
lines and patterns tend to be perceived as continuing in time or space
What is simplicity grouping
viewers tend to organize elements in the simplest way possible
What is depth perception grouping
Although the images that strike the
retina are two-dimensional, depth
perception allows us to create
mental images of objects in 3-D,
and to judge distance
Depth and Distance Perception:
Visual system relies on two types of cues to judge where an object is, and how far away from us it is
Binocular cues
provide visual cues to depth or distance requiring two eyes
What are monoculuar cues
are visual cues
to depth or distance that can be
used by one eye alone
Convergence:
the turning inward of
the eyes, which occurs when they
focus on a nearby object
Retinal disparity:
the slight difference
in lateral separation between two
objects as seen by the left eye and
the right eye
what is perceptual constancy
The accurate perception of objects
as stable or unchanged despite
changes in the sensory patterns
they produce (e.g., shape, location,
size, brightness, and color
constancies)
Shape constancy
for example the door opening in a comic, you can tell its opening not just changing shape
Size constancy
We know an object does not change its size as we move closer or further from it
colour constancy
We perceive an object as being the same color despite a change in wavelength in light,
because we judge objects relative to other objects surrounding it
brightness constancy
Depends on relative
luminance: the amount of light
an object reflects relative to its
surroundings
What is audition
refers to our sense of hearing
What does amplitude indicate in audition
loudness
What is 0 dB
The absolute threshold (not the absence of sound, just less than humans can hear)
What is 60 dB
a normal conversation
what is 85+ dB
possible long term damage
What does wavelength indicate in audition
Pitch
What is Timbre
complexity of the pressure wave; distinguishing quality of sound
What is the outer ear referring to
pinna
The ____ cells are lined up on the __________ membrane that runs the length of the ________
hair; basilar; chochlea
How do we detect loudness?
By the number of hair cells stimulated
What is place theory in hearing
Hermann von Helmholtz (1863) proposed that perception of pitch corresponds to the vibration of different portions, or places, along the cochlea’s basilar membrane Different places have different pitches, like keys on a piano
What is frequency theory in hearing?
Holds that perception of pitch corresponds to the rate, or frequency, at which the entire basilar membrane vibrates, causing the auditory nerve to fire at different rates for different frequencies. The brain detects the frequency of a tone by the rate at which the
auditory nerve fires
What is travelling wave theory
The whole basilar membrane does move, but the waves peak at particular places, depending on frequency
Sound localization
relies on loudness and intensity of stimuli to tell us where a sound is coming from
how do we estimate the distance of a sound
estimated using loudness as a cue
How do we estimate the direction sound comes from
which ear the sound
reaches first
Sound symbolism:
is the process by which the way a word sounds influences our assumptions about
what it describes and various attributes like its size
Song lyrics can persuade via the …
central route of persuasion: They can be thought about and reflected upon
Typically, however, music persuades
via the …
peripheral route of
persuasion: A song is heard, yet not
Our sense of touch is based on four distinct senses
-pressure
-warmth
-cold
-pain
What is the fast pathway of pain perception
registers localized pain and relays it to the
brain in a fraction of a second
What is the slow pathway of pain perception
lags a second or two behind and carries
less localized, longer-lasting aching or burning pain
The peak-end efect
They will rememeber what is at the very end. (pain, gifts, and more)
What is touch known as?
Haptics
What is th esense of taste known as
Gustation
Information from the taste buds travels to an area between the _______________________________ lobes of the brain.
frontal and temporal
What are Paillae
Papillae: Knoblike elevations on the
top and sides of the tongue: Each
little bump are 200-plus taste buds
True or False: Each receptor reacts to different
types of food molecules and sends
messages to the brain
true
What influences taste?
Genetic differences in amount of
papilla and sensitivity of taste buds
*Supertasters: individuals who have
more taste buds, and smaller papilla
*Can taste some things regular
tasters can’t and find some foods
unpleasantly bitter
-behaviour, culture, and expectations
olfaction is the only sense that is note routed through the
thalamus
From the brain’s olfactory bulb, the messages are sent onward to the temporal lobe’s primary smell cortex and to the parts of the limbic system involved in memory and emotion. true or false
true
humans can distinguish up to ______ odors
10,000
Kinesthesia:
System for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
Vestibular sense:
Monitors your head’s position and movement, which senses your body’s movement and position, including sense of balance
________________________________ sense organs in the inner ear that make up
the largest part of the vestibular system
The semicircular canals:
What is embodied cognition
Influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments
What are the three requirements for the brain to percieve something
-Recieve sensory stimulation
Transform that stimulation
deliverto brain
What is the present idea of how we see
- Retinas red-, green-, and blue-sensitive cones respond in varying degrees to different colored stimuli (trichromatic)
- cones responses are then processed by the opponent process cells
Define learning
Any relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge due to experience
What does learning focus on
how respond over why we respond that way in reference to cognitive factors
associate learning is representative of
classical conditioning
What is learning through consequence representative of
Operant conditioning
acquisition of mental information that guides behavior:
cognitive learning
Behavioral learning theories focus on
stimulus-response connections (i.e.,
connections between actions and
consequences)
Social Learning Theories
people actively process information—they think and they feel emotion—and their thoughts and feelings influence their behavior
Define behaviorism
Behaviorism: Approach that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior
Behavioral learning theories assume that…
learning takes place as the result of responses to external events
the ____________________ model is the behaviorist view on the brain
black box
Classical conditioning:
a stimulus that elicits a response is paired
with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own
Operant conditioning
maintains that behavior becomes more or
less probable depending on its consequences
Unconditioned stimulus (US/UCS):
A stimulus that elicits a reflexive (unconditioned) response in the absence of learning (e.g., food)
Unconditioned response (UR/UCR):
Naturally occurring (unlearned) response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth)
Neutral stimulus (NS):
Stimulus that does not yet produce a response
Conditioned stimulus (CS):
An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., bell ringing)
Conditioned response (CR):
A learned response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus; occurs after the CS is associated with the US (e.g., salivation)
trial is a pairing of the UCS and the CS. true or false
true
What is acquisition
Refers to the initial stage of learning, when one links a neutral stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned
response
Classical conditioning is most effective when stimulus to be conditioned (NS) ___________ the unconditioned stimulus
precedes
What kind of delay is best for classical conditioning
short
Extinction:
The weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response (conditioned response)
Spontaneous recovery:
The reappearance of a learned response after
its apparent extinction (i.e., after a period of non-pairing)
what is higher order conditioning
A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is
paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus
define generalization
Generalization: Tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
define discrimination
Discrimination: Learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (which predicts the unconditioned stimulus) and other irrelevant stimuli
Learning to Like:
Classical conditioning involves in our positive
emotional responses to objects, people, symbols, events, and places
Accounting for Taste:
Classical conditioning can explain how we learn to like and dislike many foods and odors
what is the garcia effect
we have a greater biological preparedness to
associate sickness with taste than with sights or sounds
How do we learn to fear
People may learn to fear any stimulus that is paired with something that elicits pain, surprise, or embarrassment
Counterconditioning:
process of pairing a conditioned stimulus with a stimulus that elicits a response that is incompatible with an unwanted conditioned response
Systematic desensitization
(a variation of counterconditioning) later developed to treat phobias
What is the Law of effect
Principle that behaviors followed by favorable
consequences become more likely and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
reinforcement:
Reinforcement strengthens the
response or makes it more
likely to recur
Punishment
weakens the response or makes it less likely
to recur
What is a primary reinforcer
Primary reinforcers are events
that are inherently reinforcing
because they satisfy a biological
need (e.g., hunger)
What are secondary reinforcers
Secondary reinforcers are events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated
with primary reinforcers (e.g., money, good grades, attention, praise, etc.)
what is a primary punisher
Stimulus that is inherently punishing (e.g., electric shock)
Secondary punisher:
Stimulus that has acquired punishing properties through association with other punishers (e.g., criticism)
what is positive reinforcement
Increases behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers
Negative reinforcement
Increases behaviors by stopping or reducing
negative stimuli
what is positive punishment
Presenting a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future
(e.g., spanking)
What is negative punishment
Removing a desired stimulus after a particular undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future (e.g., taking away TV)
what are the three ways we learn
-classical conditioning
-operant conditioning
-cognitive learning
What are some applications of classical conditioning
-drug cravings
-food cravings
-immune responses
continuous schedule
reinforcement occurs everytime desired behvior occurs
partial schedule
only part of the time, makes for slower aquisition but longer lasting
fixed ratio schedule
reinforces after specified number of responses
variable ratio
unspecifed random time
fixed interval
specified time
variable interval schedule
unpredictable time intervals
five facts about punishment
-punished behavior suppressed not forgotten
-physical punishment doesn’t replace unwanted behavior
-punishment teaches discrimination among situations
-can teach fear
-physical punishment may increases aggression
What is the instinctual drift
occurs when an animal’s innate biologically predisposed response tendencies interfere
with conditioning
what is intrinsic motivation? reinforcers?
A desire to perform a behavior effectively
for its own sake
not inherintly related to behavior being reinforced (good grades, praise etc)
what is extrinsic motivation? reinforcers?
A desire to perform a behavior to receive a
promised reward or to avoid threatened punishment
are directly related to behavior being reinforced (enjoyment, satisfaction etc)
Bandura’s social learning theory:
people actively process information—they think and they feel emotion—and their thoughts and feelings influence their behavior
Social-cognitive theory
emphasizes how behavior is learned and maintained through observation and imitation of others, positive consequences,
and cognitive processes such as plans, expectations, and beliefs
what is modelling
the process of observing and imitating the
behavior of others
define memory
Persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
The information processing approach divides memory into 3 different storage systems:
sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory
Cognitive processes involve computer ideas of
encoding, storing, and retrieving information
application of opperant conditioning
-in school
-sports
-PARENTING
biological limits on classical conditioning
-aversive tastes
-natural selection
define cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of ones environment
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is insentive to demonstrate it
what are mirror neurons
frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we do actions observe others actions
Learning operant responses usually occurs through a gradual process called ______________________, which consists of the reinforcement of
closer and closer approximations of a desired response (this is key in pet tricks)
shaping
Sensory Memory:
A memory system that momentarily preserves extremely accurate images of sensory information
What is iconic and echoic memory
Iconic memory: Momentary picture-image memory in sensory store appears to
decay after about ¼-second
*Echoic memory: Momentary sound memory in sensory store can linger for up to 3-4
seconds
Usually, ________________ is likened to a filter in an information-processing model of memory:
attention
Working Memory:
Holds and processes information that is being “worked on” in some way. (manipulating, encoding and retrieving)
what is central executive
a control processor that directs the
flow of information and regulates cognitive activities such as attention, action, and problem solving
what is working memory capacity
refers to one’s ability to hold and manipulate information in conscious attention
What is long-term memory
An unlimited store that holds information
indefinitely
interference theory suggests
suggests that LTM is permanent: the only reason we forget is that we aren’t able to access information that is still in LTM
what is automatic processing
sensory memory that slips into long term memory
Explicit memories
(declarative memories) of conscious facts and
experiences encoded through conscious, effortful processing
implicit memories
(nondeclarative memories) that form through
automatic processes and bypass the conscious encoding track
procedural memories
memories for the performance of actions or skills (“knowing how”), operations and
conditioned responses
semantic memory
general knowledge, including facts, rules, concepts, and propositions
episodic memory
personally experienced events and the
contexts in which they occurred
what are the levels of processing
shallow, intermediate, deep
three deeper processing tips
-elaboration
-visual imagery
-self-referent encoding
what structures are involved in the explicit memory system
hippocampus and frontal lobes
what is memory consolidation
The process by which the synaptic changes associated with recently stored memories become durable and stable, causing memory to be more reliable
what structures are involved in the implicit memory system
cerebellum and basil ganglia
what is long-term potentiation
long-lasting increase in the strength of synaptic responsiveness occurs (Increase in
a synapse’s firing potential)
what is priming
Priming: Activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
what is the encoding specificity principle
Remembering will be successful to the
extent that conditions at encoding MATCH conditions at retrieval
mood congruent memory
The tendency to recall experiences that are
consistent with one’s current good or bad mood
Serial position effect:
The tendency to recall best the last (recency
effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list
Primacy effect:
recall will be best for items at beginning of list
Recency effect:
recall will be best for items at end of list
what is recall
retrieving information that is not currently in your concious awareness, but was learned at an earlier time
what is recognition
identifying terms previously learned
what is relearning
Learning something more quickly when you encounter it a second or later time
why do we forget
- Encoding failure (attention)
- Storage decay
- Retrieval failure
- Interference
- Motivated forgetting
What is reconstructive memory
When we remember complex information, we typically alter it in ways that help us make sense of the material, based on what we
already know or think we know
Imagination effect:
Repeatedly imagining fake actions and events can create false memories
what is confabulation
confusion of an event that happened to someone else with one that happened to you
what is rehersal
Rehearsal is the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the
information―keeping it in use
Focus on a weapon:
Inability to remember other details (e.g.,
criminal’s face)
when asked if they recall what they were doing during the challenger explosion there was no correlation between ____________________ and _________________
acuracy and confidence
what is source amnesia
The inability to distinguish an
actual memory of an event from
information you learned about the
event elsewhere (i.e., we assign a
memory to the wrong source)
misinformation effect:
They “remembered” seeing the picture
that they had never seen
what are the two line up types
-sequetial (people are more likley to not IDD anyone)
-simultaneous(more likely to ID someone incorrectly)
Accurate recognition tends to be
automatic
conectionism
memories as products of interconnected neural networks
what is effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and concious effort
what are the threee things we process automatically
time, space, and freqiency
who is george miller
7 pieces of info guy
what is shallow processing
encoding at a basic level, beased on structure/appearance of workds
what is deep processing
encoding systematically, based on the meaning of the words. tends to yeild betetr retention
what is long term potentiation
an increase in nerve cells firing potential. a nueral basis for learning and memory
What are the two branches of memory processing
automatic and effortful
what are the two types of effortful processing
episodic and semantic
what is anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
what is retrograde amnesia
an inablity to remember the past
what is proactive interference
the forward acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information
what is retroactive interference
the backwards acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information
what is reconsolidation
a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved are potentially altered before being stored again
what is the misinformation effect
occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information
