Bio Final Flashcards
pathway of oxygen and blood
-nose
-pharynx
-larynx
-trachea
-primary bronchi
-secondary bronchi
-tertiary bronchi
-bronchioles
-terminal bronchioles
-respiratory bronchioles
-alveolar ducts
-alveolar sac
-alveoli
-pulmonary veins
-left atrium
-bicuspid
-left ventricle
-aortic valve
-aorta
-ateries
-arterioles
-capillaries
-venules
-veins
-SVC/IVC/Coronary sinus
-Right atrium
-tricuspid
-right ventricle
-pulmonary valve
-pulmonary trunk and arteries
Functions of the Lymphatic sysrem
Drains excess interstitial fluid
The lymphatic system drains tissue spaces of excess fluid and returns proteins that have escaped from blood to the cardiovascular system
Transports dietary lipids and lipid-soluble vitamins to the blood.
It also transports lipids and lipid-soluble vitamins from the gastrointestinal tract to the blood, and protects the body against invasion.
Carries out immune responses
What are the parts of the lymphatic system
Consists of lymph, lymphatic vessels, structures and organs that contain lymphatic tissue, and red bone marrow
What is innate immunity vs adaptive immunity
Innate immunity you are born with. Consists of non-specific, fast acting defense.
Adaptive immunity is specific and developed over time. It may take up to three days for defense to start working
What is involved in innate immunity (first and second line of defense)
First line
-skin and mucous membranes
Second line
-antimicrobial
-phagocytes
-natural killer (NK) cells
-inflammation, and fever
What are the two types of adaptive immunity
cell-mediated and antibody mediated immunity
What is an antigen?
any substance that the adaptive immune system recognizes as foreign (nonself). They recognize and do not attack their own tissues and cells
What is involved in the cell-mediated immunity?
cytotoxic T cells directly attack invading antigens.
What is involved in antibody-mediated immunity?
B cells transform into plasma cells that secrete antibodies (both have memory)
What is Clonal selection
Clonal selection is the process by which a lymphocyte proliferates and differentiates in response to a specific antigen.
What is the result of clonal selection
result of clonal selection is the formation of a clone of cells that can recognize the same specific antigen as the original lymphocyte
A lymphocyte that undergoes clonal selection gives rise to two major types of cells:
effector cells and memory cells
Define lymphatic nodule
oval-shaped concentrations of lymphatic tissue that are not surrounded by a capsule
Define lymphatic duct
lymphatic vessel that empties lymph into one of the subclavian veins (right lymphatic duct, and thoracic duct)
What are the components of the Urinary system?
2 kidneys, 2 ureters, 1 urinary bladder, and 1 urethra.
What are the functions of the urinary system?
- The kidneys regulate blood volume and composition help regulate blood pressure and pH, produce two hormones, and excrete wastes.
- The ureters transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.
- The urinary bladder stores urine and expels it into the urethra.
- The urethra discharges urine from the body.
What are the components of urine
Water. Chemicals not needed by the body, such as excess electrolytes (ions), ammonia, urea, creatinine, and certain drugs, are discharged into the urine by tubular secretion. + toxins
Define Micturation
urination. As the bladder fills, spinal sensory afferents relay this information to a region in the pons that coordinates micturition.
How many nephrons in each kidney
~1 million
A nephron consists of two things
a renal corpuscle and tubule
what makes up the renal corpuscle and what does it do?
Renal corpuscle: where blood plasma is filtered. The glomerulus and glomerular capsule make up the renal corpuscle
what makes up the renal tubule and what does it do?
into which the filtered fluid, called glomerular filtrate, passes
-The proximal convoluted tubule, descending limb of the nephron loop, ascending limb of the nephron loop, and distal convoluted tubule make up the renal tubule
-The distal convoluted tubules of several nephrons empty into a common collecting duct
what are the three basic tasks of a nephron
glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion.
Glomerular filtration:
forcing of fluids and most solutes through a membrane by pressure occurs in the renal corpuscles of the kidney across the filtration membrane.
Tubular reabsorption:
The process of returning most of the filtered water and many of the filtered solutes back into the blood. In this way, the substances needed by the body, including glucose, water, amino acids, and ions, are retained.
- sodium (Na+), potassium (K+) , chloride (Cl-), bicarbonate (HCO3-), calcium (Ca2+), and magnesium (Mg2+).
how much of urine is water? solutes?
95%, 5%
The volume of urine is influenced by
blood pressure, blood concentration, hormones, diet, temperature, diuretics, mental state, and general health.
The physical characteristics of urine generally evaluated by urinalysis are:
color, turbidity, odor, pH, and specific gravity.
What are the types of white blood cells
Granular and Agranular
what are the types of Agranular leukocytes
-T and B lymphocytes
-natural killer cells
-Monocytes
What are the types of granular leukocytes
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
What are the component of the digestive system
It includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine
what are the accessory digestive organs
teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
What are the functions of the digestive system.
- ingestion: taking food into the mouth.
- Secretion: release of water, acid, buffers, and enzymes into the lumen of the GI tract.
- Mixing and propulsion: churning and pushing food through the GI tract.
- Digestion: mechanical and chemical breakdown of food.
- absorption: passage of digested products from the GI tract into the blood and lymph.
- Defecation: elimination of feces from the GI tract.
What are the phases of digestion
cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase.
What occurs during the cephalic phase of digestion
salivary glands secrete saliva and gastric glands secrete gastric juice in order to prepare the mouth and stomach for food that is about to be eaten.
what occurs during the intestinal phase of digestion
During the intestinal phase of digestion, food is digested in the small intestine. In addition, gastric motility and gastric secretion decrease in order to slow the exit of chyme from the stomach, which prevents the small intestine from being overloaded with more chyme than it can handle.
what occurs in the gastric stage of digestion
The presence of food in the stomach causes the gastric phase of digestion, which promotes gastric juice secretion and gastric motility.
What are teeth called? What are they made up of? and what are there parts?
dentes
dentin, covered by enamel
crown, root and neck
what are the functions of the male reproductive system
- The testes produce sperm and the male sex hormone testosterone.
- The ducts transport, store, and assist in the maturation of sperm.
- The accessory sex glands secrete most of the liquid portion of semen.
- The penis contains the urethra, a passageway for ejaculation of semen and excretion of urine.
what are the components of the male reproductive system
testes
epididymis
ductus (vas) deferens
ejaculatory ducts
urethra
seminal vesicles
prostate
bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands
scrotum
penis
What is Mitosis
Mitosis: cell division that produces cells with diploid chromosomes
What is Meisosis
Meiosis: cell division that produces cells with haploid chromosomes
What does Haploid mean? Diploid?
-a full complement of chromosomes (46) and is said to be diploid
-23 chromosomes is said to be haploid
What is spermatogenesis
from one diploid (primary spermocyte) cell you get 4 haploid cells
What are the three parts of the penis
the root of the penis, the body of the penis, and the glans penis.
What are the functions of the female reproductive system
- The ovaries produce secondary oocytes and hormones, including estrogens, progesterone, inhibin, and relaxin.
- The fallopian tubes transport a secondary oocyte to the uterus, and normally are the sites where fertilization occurs.
- The uterus is the site of implantation of a fertilized ovum, development of the fetus during pregnancy, and labor.
- The vagina receives the penis during sexual intercourse and is a passageway for childbirth.
- The mammary glands synthesize, secrete, and eject milk for nourishment of the newborn.
What are the female organs of reproduction
ovaries, uterine (fallopian) tubes, uterus, vagina, vulva, and mammary glands.
What is the function of the ovarian cycle
The function of the ovarian cycle is development of a secondary oocyte
What are some birth control methods
-surgical sterilization (vasectomy, tubal ligation)
-non-incisional sterilization
-hormonal methods
-intrauterine devices
-spermicides
-barrier methods (male condom, vaginal pouch, diaphragm, cervical cap)
-periodic abstinence
-Abstinence is the only foolproof method of birth control.
-oral contraceptives
How do oral contrceptives work
combination type contain estrogens and progestin in concentrations that decrease the secretion of FSH and LH and thereby inhibit development of ovarian follicles and ovulation.
Within the testes are somatic cells which divide by _________; each daughter cell receives ___chromosomes and is said to be diploid. Immature gametes divide by ________, in which the pairs of chromosomes are split so that the mature gamete has only ____ chromosomes
mitosis; 46; meiosis; 23
What is opgenesis
production of haploid secondary oocytes
Meiosis II is completed only after …
an ovulated secondary oocyte is fertilized by a sperm cell.
what is the function of the uterine cycle
preparation of the endometrium each month to receive a fertilized egg.
Define seminal vesicles
each of a pair of glands which open into the vas deferens near to its junction with the urethra and secrete many of the components of semen. The seminal vesicles secrete an alkaline, viscous fluid that constitutes about 60% of the volume of semen and contributes to sperm viability.
define ductus (vas) deferens
-The ductus (vas) deferens stores sperm and propels them toward the urethra during ejaculation.
-the duct which conveys sperm from the testicle to the urethra.
What are the compenents of the integumentary system
-Skin
-Hair
-Oil and sweat glands
-nails
-sensory receptors
What are the functions of the integumentary system
- Body temperature regulation
- Protection
- Cutaneous sensations
- excretion and absorption
- Synthesis of Vitimen D
How does the integ. system regulate body temperature
-sweat, blood flow to dermis
How does the integ. system protect us
-Keratin protects underlying tissue
-Lipids prevent excessive h2o evap
-sebum keeps us moist
-protects from sun damage
What are cutaneous sensations
touch, pressure, vibration, tickling, thermal sensation
How does the integumentary system excrete and absorb materials
elimination of substances from the body and passage of materials into the body
What are the accessory structures of the integumentary system
-hair
-glands
-nails
What are the three types of skin glands
Sebaceous glands, Sudoriferous glands, Ceruminous glands
What do Sebaceous glands do?
Secret oil such as sebum to keep hair moist, keep skin from drying out, prevents H2O evap., softens skin, and inhibits bacterial growth. there are none on the palms and soles
What do Sudoriferous glands do?
these are sweat glands
What is eccrine sweat? Apocrine sweat?
normal sweat throughout the skin, caused by physical activity.
Sexy sweat, found in the groin, beards, armpits and stuff
What do ceruminous glands do
-Produce cerumen, earwax
What are the functions of the skeletal system
-Support
-Protection
-Assistance in movement
-Mineral homeostasis
-Blood cell production
-Triglyceride storage
What are the major bone cells and their functions
-Osteoprogenitor cells: almost all connective tissue. Undergo cell division.
-Osteoblasts: Bone building cells
-Osteoclasts: breakdown of bone cells
-Osteocytes: Mature bone cells, maintain daily metabolism, no cells division.
How does the skeletal system protect us?
protects internal organs from injury
How does the skeletal system maintain mineral homeostasis
bones tissue stores mineral such as Ca and P which are released on demand to maintain mineral balance
How do bones help with triglyceride storage
yellow bone marrow consists mainly of adipose cells that contain triglycerides
-as age increases RBM turns to yelloe
What are the components of the bones?
-Diaphysis (bone shaft/body)
-Epiphysis (distal and proximal ends)
-Metaphysis (Diaphysis joins Epiphysis)
-articular cartilage (Thin layer of hyaline cartilage that covers the articulation to reduce shock and friction)
-periosteum (tough sheath that goes where there is not articular cartilage)
-medullary cavity (Marrow cavity)
-endosteum (Lines medullary cavity and contains one layer of bone forming cells)
What are the two girdle types?
pelvic, pectoral
What are the bones involved with the pectoral girdle
clavicle and scapula. clavicle articulates with sternum and scapula articulates with clavicle and humerus. does not articulate with vertebral column
What bones are involved with the pelvic girdle?
Two hip bones, called coxal bones. Hip bones unite at a joint called the pubic symphysis, they unite with sacrum at sarcoiliac joint.
What is the function of the pectoral girdle
providing structural support to your shoulder region on the left and right side of your body. They also allow for a large range of motion, connecting muscles necessary for shoulder and arm movement
What is the function of the pelvic girdle
Provides strong, stable support. protects the pelvic viscera and attaches lower limbs
What are the functions of the muscular system
-Producing stable body movement (relying on muscles bones and joint)
-Stabalizing body positions
-Storing and moving substances within the body
-Producing heat
How does the muscular system stabalize body positions
skeletal muscle contractions stabalize joints and help maintain body positions, postural muscles contract continually while awake
What are the types of muscles
-Skeletal (striated and voluntary)
-Smooth (smooth and involuntary)
-cardiac (striated and involuntary)
What are the three types of contractions
-isometric (no change in length)
-eccentric (lengthen)
-concentric (Shorten)
Each fibre also contains myofibrils that contain thin filaments and thick filaments. The filaments are arranged in functional units called ______________.
Sarcomeres
What is a sarcomere
a structural unit of a myofibril in striated muscle. The pulling together of the different ends of the sarcomere leads to muscle contraction.
What are the functions of the nervous system
Sensory Function: detecting stimuli
Integrative Function: analyzing, integrating,
and storing sensory information
Motor Function: responding to integrative
decisions
What are the two major branches of the Nervous system?
Central and Peripheral
What are the sections of the Peripheral Nervous system
Somatic
Autonomic
Enteric
What makes up the SNS
Somatic nervous system consist of sensory neurons that conduct impulses from somatic special sense receptors to the CNS, and motor neurons from PNS. (voluntary)
What makes up the ANS
contains sensory neurons from visceral organs and motor neurons that convey impulses from the CNS to smooth muscle tissue, cardiac tissue and glands. (involuntary)
What makes up the ENS
controls the gut, functioning somewhat independently of ANS and CNS
what are the functional cells of the nervous system
neurons
what are the three main portions of the neuron
-dendrites
-axon
-axon terminals
what are the three neuron strcutures
unipolar
bipolar
multipolar
What are the three neuron types?
sensory (afferent)
motor (efferent)
interneurons
What are neuroglia and what do they do
Specialized cells that support nurture and protect neurons. They maintain interstitial fluid
What are the two branches of the ANS
parasympathetic and sympathetic
What are the two types of cells found in nervous tissue?
neurons and neuroglia
What is the parasympathetic nervous system?
-rest and digest
-conserve energy
-D division
-Digestion, defecation, dieresis
What is the sympathetic nervous system?
-fight or flight
-takes over and increases activities
-think of the E division
-Exercise, excitement, emergency, embaressment
What are the special senses
smell, taste, vision, hearing, and
equilibrium (balance).
What are the general senses
which include somatic senses and visceral
senses
Define adaption
is a decrease in sensation during a prolonged stimulus. Some receptors are rapidly adapting; others are slowly adapting.
for a sensation to occur, what four conditions must be satisfied
-A stimulus, or change in the environment, capable of activating certain
sensory neurons, must occur.
-A sensory receptor must convert the stimulus to an electrical signal, will produce nerve impulses if it is large enough.
-The nerve impulses must be conducted along a neural pathway from the
sensory receptor to the brain.
-A region of the brain must receive and integrate the nerve impulses into a
sensation.
What are the somatic senses (general senses)
-Tactile sensations (touch, pressure, vibration, itch, and tickle)
-Thermal sensations (heat and cold)
-Pain sensations
-Proprioceptive sensations (joint and muscle position sense and movements of the limbs)
where are somatic receptors located
skin
mucous membranes
muscles
tendons
joints
What are the receptors of touch
-Merkel discs
-ruffini corpuscles
-hair root plexuses
-Miessner corpuscles
What are thermoreceptors
free nerve endings in the epidermis and
dermis, adapt to continuous stimulation.
What are nociceptors
free nerve endings that are located in
nearly every body tissue; they provide pain sensations.
The olfactory epithelium in the upper portion of the nasal cavity contains
olfactory receptors, supporting cells , and Basal cells.
adaption to odors occurs…
rapidly
what are the receptors for gustation and where are the located?
gustatory cells are located in the taste buds
What are the five primary tastes
-sweet
-sour
-bitter
-salty
-umami
What are the accessory structures of vision
eyebrows, eyelashes, eyelids, extrinsic muscles that move the eyeballs, and lacrimal (tear‐producing) apparatus.
What are the three layers of the eyeball?
(a) fibrous tunic (sclera and cornea), (b) vascular tunic (choroid, ciliary body, and iris), and (c) retina.
The retina consists of…
neural layer (photoreceptor layer, bipolar
cell layer, and ganglion cell layer) and a pigmented layer (a sheet of melanin-containing epithelial cells).
what makes up the retina
neural layer (photoreceptor layer, bipolar
cell layer, and ganglion cell layer) and a pigmented layer (a sheet of melanin-containing epithelial cells).
define accommodation in vision
For viewing close objects, the lens increases its curvature (accommodation), and the pupil constricts to prevent light rays from entering the eye through the periphery of the lens.
What are the three types of improper refraction
Improper refraction may result from myopia (nearsightedness), Hyperopia (farsightedness), or astigmatism (irregular curvature of the cornea or lens).
What does the external ear consists of
auricle, external auditory canal, and eardrum.
What does the middle ear consist of
auditory (eustachian) tube, auditory ossicles, and oval window.
What does the internal ear consist of
bony labyrinth and membranous labyrinth. The internal ear contains the spiral organ (organ of Corti), the organ of hearing.
define dynamic equilibrium
Dynamic equilibrium is the maintenance of body position in response to rotational acceleration and deceleration.
Define all-or-none principle
a neuron either fires or it doesn’t. It has to reach the threshold (-55) and then in fires
What are the receptors of pressure and vibration
Pacicinan corpuscles
A region of the brain must _____________ and ______________ the nerve impulses into a sensation.
recieve and integrate
What is the difference between rods adn cones
Rods do well helping us see in dark, cones do well in light and we can see color and stuff
What is static equilibrium
the orientation of the body relative to the pull of gravity. The maculae of the utricle and saccule are the sense organs of static equilibrium.
What are the general functions of blood
transportation, regulation, and protection.
How does blood help transportation
-Blood transports oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body and carbon dioxide from the cells to the lungs
-carries nutrients from the gastrointestinal tract to body cells
-heat and waste products away from cells
-hormones from endocrine glands to other body cells.
how does blood help with regulation
-Blood helps regulate the pH of body fluids.
-The heat-absorbing and coolant properties of the water in blood plasma and its variable rate of flow through the skin help adjust body temperature.-
- Blood osmotic pressure also influences the water content of cells.
How does blood help protect us
-forming scabs, and blood clots
-white blood cells (phagocytes)
-producing proteins called antibodies.
-Blood contains additional proteins, called interferons and complement, that also help protect against disease.
what are the physical characteristics of blood
-(thickness) greater than that of water
-temperature of 38˚ (100.4˚F)
- pH range between 7.35 and 7.45
What are the formed elements of blood
-Red blood cells (eurythrocytes)
-white blood cells (leukocytes)
-platelets
What is the unformed element in blood
plasma
What is the average life-span of an erythrocyte?
120 days
How many erythrocytes are in healthy men and women
men- 5.4 million/mL
women- 4.8 million/mL
RBC formation, called __________, occurs in adult red bone marrow.
erythropoises
what is the purpose of leukocytes
to combat inflammation and infection. Neutrophils and macrophages (which develop from monocytes) do so through phagocytosis
what is the average life span of leukocytes
a few hours to a few days
how many WBC do we have on average
5,000-10,000
What are platletes
disc-shaped cell fragments without nuclei that are formed from megakaryocytes and take part in hemostasis by forming a platelet plug.
How many platelets are in healthy blood
140,000-400,000 platelets
what is the normal lifespan fo a platelet
5-9 days
where are RBC’s broken down
-Spleen
-Liver
-Red bone marrow
define hemostasis
-the stoppage of bleeding, involves vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and blood clotting.
-In vascular spasm, the smooth muscle of a blood vessel wall contracts.
-Platelet plug formation is the aggregation of platelets to stop bleeding.
-A clot is a network of insoluble protein fibers (fibrin) in which formed elements of blood are trapped. The chemicals involved in clotting are known as clotting factors.
O blood can receive
O blood
A blood can recieve
A blood and O blood
B blood can recieve
O blood and B blood
AB blood can receive
All blood
Cardiac muscles are…
-striated
-involuntary
-grouped in bundles of fibers
what is the membrane that encloses the heart
Pericardium
What are the three layers of the heart
epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium.
What is the purpose of valves in the heart
prevent the backflow of blood in the heart.
how to atrioventricular valves work
chordae tendineae, and their papillary muscles stop blood from flowing back into the atria. Each of the two arteries that leave the heart has a semilunar valve.
what does coronary cardiac circulation do
delivers Oxygenated blood to myocardium and removes CO2 from it
what do baroreceptors do
send impulses to the cardiovascular center to regulate blood pressure.
what are the two main circulatory routes
systematic circulation and pulmonary circulation
what does systematic circulation do
takes oxygenated blood from the left ventricle through the aorta to all parts of the body and returns deoxygenated blood to the right atrium.
what does pulmonary circulation do
takes deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the air sacs of the lungs and returns oxygenated blood from the air sacs to the left atrium. It allows blood to be oxygenated for systemic circulation.
what is the cardiovascular and respiratory center
medulla oblongota
what is blood pressure? how is it measured?
is the pressure exerted by blood on the wall of an artery when the left ventricle undergoes systole and then diastole. It is measured by a sphygmomanometer.
what is systollic blood pressure
is the force of blood recorded during ventricular contraction
what is diastollic blood pressure
the force of blood recorded during ventricular relaxation
what is hypertension
persistently high blood pressure. It is the most common disorder affecting the heart and blood vessels and is the major cause of heart failure, kidney disease, and stroke
what are the functions of blood vessels
- carries blood away from the heart (in arteries), transports it through the tissues of the body (in arterioles, capillaries, and venules), and then returns it to the heart (in veins).
- Exchange of substances between the blood and body tissue cells occurs as blood flows through the capillaries.
- Nutrients and oxygen diffuse from the blood through interstitial fluid into tissue cells. Waste products, including carbon dioxide, diffuse from tissue cells through interstitial fluid into the blood.
what do arteries do?
carry blood away from the heart. Their walls consist of three layers. The structure of the middle layer gives arteries their two major properties, elasticity and contractility.
what are arterioles and what do they do
small arteries that deliver blood to capillaries. Through constriction and dilation, arterioles play a key role in regulating blood flow from arteries into capillaries.
what are capillaries and what do they do
microscopic blood vessels through which materials are exchanged between blood and interstitial fluid. Precapillary sphincters regulate blood flow through capillaries.
what is capillary blood pressure
“pushes” fluid out of capillaries into interstitial fluid (filtration). Blood colloid osmotic pressure “pulls” fluid into capillaries from interstitial fluid (reabsorption).
what is autoregulation
local adjustments of blood flow in response to physical and chemical changes in a tissue.
what are venules and what do they do
small vessels that emerge from capillaries and merge to form veins. They drain blood from capillaries into veins.
what are veins and what do they do
consist of the same three layers as arteries but have less elastic tissue and smooth muscle. They contain valves that prevent backflow of blood. Weak venous valves can lead to varicose veins.
what is a venous pump
the volume of blood flowing back to the heart through systemic veins, occurs due to the pumping action of the heart, aided by skeletal muscle contractions (the skeletal muscle pump), and breathing (the respiratory pump).
blood flow is determined by
pressure and vascular resistance
what is vascular resistance and what does it depend on
the opposition to blood flow mainly as a result of friction between blood and the walls of blood vessels. It depends on the size of the blood vessel lumen, blood viscosity, and total blood vessel length.
what do vasoreceptors control
vasoconstriction and vasodialation
normal pulse is
75 BPM
what are the functions of the endocrine system
- Help regulate:
i. Chemical composition and volume of internal environment (interstitial fluid). PANCREAS
ii. Metabolism and energy balance.
THYROID
iii. Contraction of smooth and cardiac muscle fibers. THYROID
iv. Glandular secretions. MOST GLANDS
v. Some immune system activities. THYMUS - Control growth and development. PITUITARY
- Regulate operation of reproductive systems. TESTES AND OVARIES
- Help establish circadian (daily) rhythms. THYROID
The endocrine system consists of
endocrine glands and several organs that contain endocrine tissue.
Endocrine glands secrete hormones into _____________. Then, the hormones diffuse into the ________.
interstitial fluid; blood
Exocrine glands secrete products into _______ (sweat and salivary glands)
Endocrine secrete into ______________________(hormones)
ducts; interstitial fluid to blood
what is the master gland
pituitary
What are the two motor neurons in the autonomic NS
-preganglionic neurons which are in brain and spinal cord
-Postganglionic neuron extends to the organ
define anatomy
Study of the structure and shape of
the body and its parts
define physiology
Study of how the body and its parts
work or function
what is stroke volume
is the amount of blood ejected by a ventricle during ventricular systole. It is related to stretch on the heart before it contracts, forcefulness of contraction, and the amount of pressure required to eject blood from the ventricles.
what is metabolism
sum of all the chemical processes
that occur in the body
What is Cardiac output
is the amount of blood ejected by the left ventricle into the aorta each minute: CO = stroke volume X beats per minute.
what is homeostasis
-Homeostasis ensures that the body’s
internal environment remains constant
despite changes inside and outside the
body
-Homeostasis is a dynamic state of
equilibrium
-Homeostasis is necessary for normal body
function and life
-Homeostatic imbalance = disease
What is lymph
blood plasma, which is then interstitial fluid is called lymph when its in the lymphatic system
what is differentiation
the process whereby unspecialized cells become specialized cells
What is a water soluable hormone
-Water-soluble hormones alter cell function by activating plasma membrane receptors, which elicit production of a second messenger that activates various proteins inside the cell.
Define ganglion
a structure containing a number of nerve cell bodies, typically linked by synapses, and often forming a swelling on a nerve fiber.
an abnormal benign swelling on a tendon sheath
Define chemoreceptor
a sensory cell or organ responsive to chemical stimuli
for example chemical composition of blood
define edema
Edema is swelling caused by excess fluid trapped in your body’s tissues. Although edema can affect any part of your body, you may notice it more in your hands, arms, feet, ankles and legs.
define peristalasis
Peristalsis is a series of wave-like muscle contractions that move food through the digestive tract.
refraction
The phenomenon of a beam of light bending as the light’s velocity changes. This occurs when the refractive index of the material through which the light is passing changes.
What do lymphnodes do
filter through lymph and remove foriegn substances through phagocyotiis, immune reactions,
what are the cells involved in cell mediated immunity
-helper t
-cytotoxic t
-suppressor t
what are the types of t cells
-Cytotoxic
-NKT
-Memory
what is the system of lymphatic flow
-blood capillaries (blood plasma)
-interstitial spaces (interstitial fluid)
-lymphatic capillaries (lymph)
-lymphatic vessels + lymph nodes
-lymphatic ducts
-junction of jugular and subclavian veins (blood plasma again)
What are the three layers of connective tissue in spinal cord
-dura mater
-arachnoid mater
-pia mater
what are the steps of action potential
depolarization, repolarization, and hyperpolarization
What are the functions of the respiratory system
- Provides for gas exchange—intake of O2 for delivery to body cells and removal of CO2 produced by body cells.
- Helps regulate blood pH.
- Contains receptors for the sense of smell, filters inspired air, produces sounds, and excretes small amounts of water and heat.
Respiratory organs include the
nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs
why do we need the nose
for warming, moistening, and filtering air; olfaction; and serving as a resonating chamber.
What makes up the external portion of the nose
The external portion of the nose is made of cartilage and skin and is lined with mucous membrane. Openings to the exterior are the external nares.
What makes up the internal portion of the nose
divided from the external portion by the nasal septum communicates with the paranasal sinuses and nasopharynx through the internal nares.
what is the pharynx
(throat), a muscular tube lined by a mucous membrane, is divided into the nasopharynx (respiration), oropharynx, and laryngopharynx (respiration and digestion)
What is the larynx
The larynx contains the thyroid cartilage (Adam’s apple), the epiglottis, the cricoid cartilage, arytenoid cartilages, false vocal cords, and true vocal cords.
what is the tracheo (windpipe)
extends from the larynx to the primary bronchi.
-It is composed of smooth muscle and C-shaped rings of cartilage and is lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium.
How many lobes and fissures does each lung have
o The right lung has three lobes separated by two fissures; the left lung has two lobes separated by one fissure plus a depression, the cardiac notch.
where does gas exchange occur
Exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon
dioxide) in the lungs occurs across the
respiratory membrane, a thin “sandwich”
consisting of alveolar cells, basement
membrane, and endothelial cells of a capillary.
Pulmonary ventilation (breathing) consists of
inhalation and exhalation, the movement of air into and out of the lungs. Air flows from higher to lower pressure.
Inhalation occurs when
alveolar pressure falls below atmospheric pressure.
how does inhalation work
Contraction of the diaphragm and external intercostals expands lung volume.
Increased volume of the lungs decreases alveolar pressure, and air moves from higher to lower pressure, from the atmosphere into the lungs.
exhalation occurs when
alveolar pressure is higher than atmospheric pressure.
how does exhalation work
Relaxation of the diaphragm and external intercostals decreases lung volume, and alveolar pressure increases so that air moves from the lungs to the atmosphere.
what is external exhalation
the exchange of gases between alveolar
air and pulmonary blood capillaries, is aided by a thin respiratory membrane, a large alveolar surface area, and a rich blood supply.
what is internal respiration
the exchange of gases between systemic tissue capillaries and systemic tissue cells.
what is the respiratory center specifically
The respiratory center consists of a medullary rhythmicity area (inspiratory and expiratory areas) in the medulla oblongata and groups of neurons in the pons.
Respirations may be modified by several factors…
-cortical influences
-chemical stimuli, such as levels of O2, CO2, and H+
-limbic system stimulation;
-proprioceptor input
-temperature
-pain
-the inflation reflex
-irritation to the airways.
what is minute ventilation
the total air taken in during 1 minute (breathing rate per minute multiplied by tidal volume).
what is tidal volume
the amount of air that moves in or out of the lungs with each respiratory cycle. It measures around 500 mL
what is inspiratory reserve volume
The extra volume of air that can be inspired with maximal effort after reaching the end of a normal, quiet inspiration
what is expiratory reserve volume
The extra volume of air that can be expired with maximum effort beyond the level reached at the end of a normal, quiet expiration.
what is residual volume
the volume of air remaining in the lungs after maximum forceful expiration
what are the endocrine glands
-Hypothalamus
-Pituitary
-Thyroid
-Pancreas
-adrenal glands
-parathyroids
-ovaries
-testes
-Pineal gland
what occurs in the seminiferous tubules
sperm development
Sertoli cells
nourish sperm cells and produce the hormone inhibin
Leydig cells
which produce the sex hormone testosterone
what does the prosate do
secretes a slightly acidic fluid that constitutes about 25% of the volume of semen and contributes to sperm motility.
what do the bulborethral glands do
secrete mucus for lubrication and an alkaline substance that neutralizes acid.
what is semen
a mixture of sperm and seminal fluid; it provides the fluid in which sperm are transported, supplies nutrients, and neutralizes the acidity of the male urethra and the vagina.
what is the function of the ovaries
produce secondary oocytes; discharge secondary oocytes (the process of ovulation); and secrete estrogens, progesterone, relaxin, and inhibin.
what are the functions of the uterus
functions in menstruation, implantation of a fertilized ovum, development of a fetus during pregnancy, and labor. It also is part of the pathway for sperm to reach a uterine tube to fertilize a secondary oocyte.
milk production is stimulated by… secretion is stimulated by…
prolactin, estrogens, and progesterone.
oxytocin
what occurs during ovulation
the rupture of the dominant mature (graafian) follicle and the release of a secondary oocyte into the pelvic cavity. It is brought about by a surge of LH.
