Bio Final Flashcards
pathway of oxygen and blood
-nose
-pharynx
-larynx
-trachea
-primary bronchi
-secondary bronchi
-tertiary bronchi
-bronchioles
-terminal bronchioles
-respiratory bronchioles
-alveolar ducts
-alveolar sac
-alveoli
-pulmonary veins
-left atrium
-bicuspid
-left ventricle
-aortic valve
-aorta
-ateries
-arterioles
-capillaries
-venules
-veins
-SVC/IVC/Coronary sinus
-Right atrium
-tricuspid
-right ventricle
-pulmonary valve
-pulmonary trunk and arteries
Functions of the Lymphatic sysrem
Drains excess interstitial fluid
The lymphatic system drains tissue spaces of excess fluid and returns proteins that have escaped from blood to the cardiovascular system
Transports dietary lipids and lipid-soluble vitamins to the blood.
It also transports lipids and lipid-soluble vitamins from the gastrointestinal tract to the blood, and protects the body against invasion.
Carries out immune responses
What are the parts of the lymphatic system
Consists of lymph, lymphatic vessels, structures and organs that contain lymphatic tissue, and red bone marrow
What is innate immunity vs adaptive immunity
Innate immunity you are born with. Consists of non-specific, fast acting defense.
Adaptive immunity is specific and developed over time. It may take up to three days for defense to start working
What is involved in innate immunity (first and second line of defense)
First line
-skin and mucous membranes
Second line
-antimicrobial
-phagocytes
-natural killer (NK) cells
-inflammation, and fever
What are the two types of adaptive immunity
cell-mediated and antibody mediated immunity
What is an antigen?
any substance that the adaptive immune system recognizes as foreign (nonself). They recognize and do not attack their own tissues and cells
What is involved in the cell-mediated immunity?
cytotoxic T cells directly attack invading antigens.
What is involved in antibody-mediated immunity?
B cells transform into plasma cells that secrete antibodies (both have memory)
What is Clonal selection
Clonal selection is the process by which a lymphocyte proliferates and differentiates in response to a specific antigen.
What is the result of clonal selection
result of clonal selection is the formation of a clone of cells that can recognize the same specific antigen as the original lymphocyte
A lymphocyte that undergoes clonal selection gives rise to two major types of cells:
effector cells and memory cells
Define lymphatic nodule
oval-shaped concentrations of lymphatic tissue that are not surrounded by a capsule
Define lymphatic duct
lymphatic vessel that empties lymph into one of the subclavian veins (right lymphatic duct, and thoracic duct)
What are the components of the Urinary system?
2 kidneys, 2 ureters, 1 urinary bladder, and 1 urethra.
What are the functions of the urinary system?
- The kidneys regulate blood volume and composition help regulate blood pressure and pH, produce two hormones, and excrete wastes.
- The ureters transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.
- The urinary bladder stores urine and expels it into the urethra.
- The urethra discharges urine from the body.
What are the components of urine
Water. Chemicals not needed by the body, such as excess electrolytes (ions), ammonia, urea, creatinine, and certain drugs, are discharged into the urine by tubular secretion. + toxins
Define Micturation
urination. As the bladder fills, spinal sensory afferents relay this information to a region in the pons that coordinates micturition.
How many nephrons in each kidney
~1 million
A nephron consists of two things
a renal corpuscle and tubule
what makes up the renal corpuscle and what does it do?
Renal corpuscle: where blood plasma is filtered. The glomerulus and glomerular capsule make up the renal corpuscle
what makes up the renal tubule and what does it do?
into which the filtered fluid, called glomerular filtrate, passes
-The proximal convoluted tubule, descending limb of the nephron loop, ascending limb of the nephron loop, and distal convoluted tubule make up the renal tubule
-The distal convoluted tubules of several nephrons empty into a common collecting duct
what are the three basic tasks of a nephron
glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion.
Glomerular filtration:
forcing of fluids and most solutes through a membrane by pressure occurs in the renal corpuscles of the kidney across the filtration membrane.
Tubular reabsorption:
The process of returning most of the filtered water and many of the filtered solutes back into the blood. In this way, the substances needed by the body, including glucose, water, amino acids, and ions, are retained.
- sodium (Na+), potassium (K+) , chloride (Cl-), bicarbonate (HCO3-), calcium (Ca2+), and magnesium (Mg2+).
how much of urine is water? solutes?
95%, 5%
The volume of urine is influenced by
blood pressure, blood concentration, hormones, diet, temperature, diuretics, mental state, and general health.
The physical characteristics of urine generally evaluated by urinalysis are:
color, turbidity, odor, pH, and specific gravity.
What are the types of white blood cells
Granular and Agranular
what are the types of Agranular leukocytes
-T and B lymphocytes
-natural killer cells
-Monocytes
What are the types of granular leukocytes
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
What are the component of the digestive system
It includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine
what are the accessory digestive organs
teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
What are the functions of the digestive system.
- ingestion: taking food into the mouth.
- Secretion: release of water, acid, buffers, and enzymes into the lumen of the GI tract.
- Mixing and propulsion: churning and pushing food through the GI tract.
- Digestion: mechanical and chemical breakdown of food.
- absorption: passage of digested products from the GI tract into the blood and lymph.
- Defecation: elimination of feces from the GI tract.
What are the phases of digestion
cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase.
What occurs during the cephalic phase of digestion
salivary glands secrete saliva and gastric glands secrete gastric juice in order to prepare the mouth and stomach for food that is about to be eaten.
what occurs during the intestinal phase of digestion
During the intestinal phase of digestion, food is digested in the small intestine. In addition, gastric motility and gastric secretion decrease in order to slow the exit of chyme from the stomach, which prevents the small intestine from being overloaded with more chyme than it can handle.
what occurs in the gastric stage of digestion
The presence of food in the stomach causes the gastric phase of digestion, which promotes gastric juice secretion and gastric motility.
What are teeth called? What are they made up of? and what are there parts?
dentes
dentin, covered by enamel
crown, root and neck
what are the functions of the male reproductive system
- The testes produce sperm and the male sex hormone testosterone.
- The ducts transport, store, and assist in the maturation of sperm.
- The accessory sex glands secrete most of the liquid portion of semen.
- The penis contains the urethra, a passageway for ejaculation of semen and excretion of urine.
what are the components of the male reproductive system
testes
epididymis
ductus (vas) deferens
ejaculatory ducts
urethra
seminal vesicles
prostate
bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands
scrotum
penis
What is Mitosis
Mitosis: cell division that produces cells with diploid chromosomes
What is Meisosis
Meiosis: cell division that produces cells with haploid chromosomes
What does Haploid mean? Diploid?
-a full complement of chromosomes (46) and is said to be diploid
-23 chromosomes is said to be haploid
What is spermatogenesis
from one diploid (primary spermocyte) cell you get 4 haploid cells
What are the three parts of the penis
the root of the penis, the body of the penis, and the glans penis.
What are the functions of the female reproductive system
- The ovaries produce secondary oocytes and hormones, including estrogens, progesterone, inhibin, and relaxin.
- The fallopian tubes transport a secondary oocyte to the uterus, and normally are the sites where fertilization occurs.
- The uterus is the site of implantation of a fertilized ovum, development of the fetus during pregnancy, and labor.
- The vagina receives the penis during sexual intercourse and is a passageway for childbirth.
- The mammary glands synthesize, secrete, and eject milk for nourishment of the newborn.
What are the female organs of reproduction
ovaries, uterine (fallopian) tubes, uterus, vagina, vulva, and mammary glands.
What is the function of the ovarian cycle
The function of the ovarian cycle is development of a secondary oocyte
What are some birth control methods
-surgical sterilization (vasectomy, tubal ligation)
-non-incisional sterilization
-hormonal methods
-intrauterine devices
-spermicides
-barrier methods (male condom, vaginal pouch, diaphragm, cervical cap)
-periodic abstinence
-Abstinence is the only foolproof method of birth control.
-oral contraceptives
How do oral contrceptives work
combination type contain estrogens and progestin in concentrations that decrease the secretion of FSH and LH and thereby inhibit development of ovarian follicles and ovulation.
Within the testes are somatic cells which divide by _________; each daughter cell receives ___chromosomes and is said to be diploid. Immature gametes divide by ________, in which the pairs of chromosomes are split so that the mature gamete has only ____ chromosomes
mitosis; 46; meiosis; 23
What is opgenesis
production of haploid secondary oocytes
Meiosis II is completed only after …
an ovulated secondary oocyte is fertilized by a sperm cell.
what is the function of the uterine cycle
preparation of the endometrium each month to receive a fertilized egg.
Define seminal vesicles
each of a pair of glands which open into the vas deferens near to its junction with the urethra and secrete many of the components of semen. The seminal vesicles secrete an alkaline, viscous fluid that constitutes about 60% of the volume of semen and contributes to sperm viability.
define ductus (vas) deferens
-The ductus (vas) deferens stores sperm and propels them toward the urethra during ejaculation.
-the duct which conveys sperm from the testicle to the urethra.
What are the compenents of the integumentary system
-Skin
-Hair
-Oil and sweat glands
-nails
-sensory receptors
What are the functions of the integumentary system
- Body temperature regulation
- Protection
- Cutaneous sensations
- excretion and absorption
- Synthesis of Vitimen D
How does the integ. system regulate body temperature
-sweat, blood flow to dermis
How does the integ. system protect us
-Keratin protects underlying tissue
-Lipids prevent excessive h2o evap
-sebum keeps us moist
-protects from sun damage
What are cutaneous sensations
touch, pressure, vibration, tickling, thermal sensation
How does the integumentary system excrete and absorb materials
elimination of substances from the body and passage of materials into the body
What are the accessory structures of the integumentary system
-hair
-glands
-nails
What are the three types of skin glands
Sebaceous glands, Sudoriferous glands, Ceruminous glands
What do Sebaceous glands do?
Secret oil such as sebum to keep hair moist, keep skin from drying out, prevents H2O evap., softens skin, and inhibits bacterial growth. there are none on the palms and soles
What do Sudoriferous glands do?
these are sweat glands
What is eccrine sweat? Apocrine sweat?
normal sweat throughout the skin, caused by physical activity.
Sexy sweat, found in the groin, beards, armpits and stuff
What do ceruminous glands do
-Produce cerumen, earwax
What are the functions of the skeletal system
-Support
-Protection
-Assistance in movement
-Mineral homeostasis
-Blood cell production
-Triglyceride storage
What are the major bone cells and their functions
-Osteoprogenitor cells: almost all connective tissue. Undergo cell division.
-Osteoblasts: Bone building cells
-Osteoclasts: breakdown of bone cells
-Osteocytes: Mature bone cells, maintain daily metabolism, no cells division.
How does the skeletal system protect us?
protects internal organs from injury
How does the skeletal system maintain mineral homeostasis
bones tissue stores mineral such as Ca and P which are released on demand to maintain mineral balance
How do bones help with triglyceride storage
yellow bone marrow consists mainly of adipose cells that contain triglycerides
-as age increases RBM turns to yelloe
What are the components of the bones?
-Diaphysis (bone shaft/body)
-Epiphysis (distal and proximal ends)
-Metaphysis (Diaphysis joins Epiphysis)
-articular cartilage (Thin layer of hyaline cartilage that covers the articulation to reduce shock and friction)
-periosteum (tough sheath that goes where there is not articular cartilage)
-medullary cavity (Marrow cavity)
-endosteum (Lines medullary cavity and contains one layer of bone forming cells)
What are the two girdle types?
pelvic, pectoral
What are the bones involved with the pectoral girdle
clavicle and scapula. clavicle articulates with sternum and scapula articulates with clavicle and humerus. does not articulate with vertebral column
What bones are involved with the pelvic girdle?
Two hip bones, called coxal bones. Hip bones unite at a joint called the pubic symphysis, they unite with sacrum at sarcoiliac joint.
What is the function of the pectoral girdle
providing structural support to your shoulder region on the left and right side of your body. They also allow for a large range of motion, connecting muscles necessary for shoulder and arm movement
What is the function of the pelvic girdle
Provides strong, stable support. protects the pelvic viscera and attaches lower limbs
What are the functions of the muscular system
-Producing stable body movement (relying on muscles bones and joint)
-Stabalizing body positions
-Storing and moving substances within the body
-Producing heat
How does the muscular system stabalize body positions
skeletal muscle contractions stabalize joints and help maintain body positions, postural muscles contract continually while awake
What are the types of muscles
-Skeletal (striated and voluntary)
-Smooth (smooth and involuntary)
-cardiac (striated and involuntary)
What are the three types of contractions
-isometric (no change in length)
-eccentric (lengthen)
-concentric (Shorten)
Each fibre also contains myofibrils that contain thin filaments and thick filaments. The filaments are arranged in functional units called ______________.
Sarcomeres
What is a sarcomere
a structural unit of a myofibril in striated muscle. The pulling together of the different ends of the sarcomere leads to muscle contraction.
What are the functions of the nervous system
Sensory Function: detecting stimuli
Integrative Function: analyzing, integrating,
and storing sensory information
Motor Function: responding to integrative
decisions
What are the two major branches of the Nervous system?
Central and Peripheral
What are the sections of the Peripheral Nervous system
Somatic
Autonomic
Enteric
What makes up the SNS
Somatic nervous system consist of sensory neurons that conduct impulses from somatic special sense receptors to the CNS, and motor neurons from PNS. (voluntary)
What makes up the ANS
contains sensory neurons from visceral organs and motor neurons that convey impulses from the CNS to smooth muscle tissue, cardiac tissue and glands. (involuntary)
What makes up the ENS
controls the gut, functioning somewhat independently of ANS and CNS
what are the functional cells of the nervous system
neurons
what are the three main portions of the neuron
-dendrites
-axon
-axon terminals
what are the three neuron strcutures
unipolar
bipolar
multipolar
What are the three neuron types?
sensory (afferent)
motor (efferent)
interneurons