Biology II Flashcards
What are the accessory structures of the eye
eyebrows, eyelashes, eyelids, extrinsic muscles that move the eyeballs, and lacrimal (tear‐producing) apparatus.
What are special senses
smell, taste, vision, hearing, and equilibrium (balance).
What are general senses
General senses, which include somatic senses and visceral senses
What are 4 major types of somatic senses
-Tactile sensations (touch, pressure, vibration, itch, and tickle)
-Thermal sensation (heat and cold)
-Pain sensations
-Proprioceptive (your body’s awareness of space) sensations (joint and muscle position sense and movements of the limbs)
Where are somatic receptors located
skin, mucous membranes, muscles, tendons, and joints.
What are the receptors of touch
-Meissner corpuscles, hair root plexuses, Merkel discs, and Ruffini corpuscles.
What are the receptors of pressure and vibration
Pacinian corpuscles.
What causes tickle and itch sensations
stimulation of free nerve endings
___________________, free nerve endings in the epidermis and dermis, adapt to continuous stimulation.
Thermoreceptors
_________________are free nerve endings that are located in nearly every body tissue; they provide pain sensations. (referred pain)
Nociceptors
__________________________inform us of the degree to which muscles are contracted, the amount of tension present in tendons, the positions of joints, and the orientation of the head.
Proprioceptors
What is adaption
Adaption is a decrease in sensation during a prolonged stimulus. Some receptors are rapidly adapting; others are slowly adapting.
Define receptors
Receptors can be classified structurally by their microscopic features as free nerve endings, encapsulated nerve endings, or separate cells.
- A region of the brain must _____________ and ______________ the nerve impulses into a sensation.
receive and integrate
What is the process of sniffing
- Sniff those particals into your nose
- Most get filtered, but some get to your olfactory epithelium
a. Those dissolve in the mucus that coats it - Binds to receptors on olfactory neurons
- Fire action potential up axons
- Sent to olfactory portion of the brain
- Goes to (1) the frontal to differentiate and (2) to the limbic for memory or danger.
The olfactory epithelium in the upper portion of the nasal cavity contains:
olfactory receptors, supporting cells , and Basal cells.
What are the receptor cells of taste?
gustatory receptor cells, are located in taste buds
what are the 5 primary tastes
salty, sweet, sour, bitter, and umami
What’s the process of how we taste things
Food diffuses through taste pours and bind on receptors, the trigger and action potential, transmitted to taste centers of cerebral cortex, we release digestive enzymes to begin digestion.
What are the three layers of the eyeball
(a) fibrous tunic (sclera and cornea), (b) vascular tunic (choroid, ciliary body, and iris), and (c) retina.
What does the retina consist of ?
a neural layer (photoreceptor layer, bipolar cell layer, and ganglion cell layer) and a pigmented layer (a sheet of melanin-containing epithelial cells).
Whats the difference between rods and cones
Rods do well helping us see in dark, cones do well in light and we can see color and stuff
What are the three types of improper refraction
Improper refraction may result from myopia (nearsightedness), Hyperopia (farsightedness), or astigmatism (irregular curvature of the cornea or lens).
What is the first step of seeing
the absorption of light rays by photopigments in rods and cones (photoreceptors).
What is the second step of seeing
Stimulation of the rods and cones then activates bipolar cells, which in turn activate the ganglion cells.
What does the external ear consists of?
auricle, external auditory canal, and eardrum.
What does the middle ear consist of?
The middle ear consists of the auditory (eustachian) tube, auditory ossicles, and oval window.
What does the internal ear consist of
The internal ear consists of the bony labyrinth and membranous labyrinth. The internal ear contains the spiral organ (organ of Corti), the organ of hearing.
-Hair cells release neurotransmitter molecules that can initiate nerve impulses in sensory neurons.
-Sensory neurons in the cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear (VIII) nerve terminate in the medulla oblongata. Auditory signals then pass to the midbrain, thalamus, and temporal lobes.
What is static equilibrium?
the orientation of the body relative to the pull of gravity. The maculae of the utricle and saccule are the sense organs of static equilibrium.
What is dynamic equilibrium
maintenance of body position in response to rotational acceleration and deceleration.
What is motion sickness
The confusion of your brain, you see that you’re moving but you are standing still
What are the functions of the endocrine system
- Help regulate:
i. Chemical composition and volume of internal environment (interstitial fluid). PANCREAS
ii. Metabolism and energy balance. THYROID
iii. Contraction of smooth and cardiac muscle fibers. THYROID
iv. Glandular secretions. MOST GLANDS
v. Some immune system activities. THYMUS - Control growth and development. PITUITARY
- Regulate operation of reproductive systems. TESTES AND OVARIES
- Help establish circadian (daily) rhythms. THYROID
What are the two main sections of the peripheral nervous system
Somatic and autonomic
What are the two motor neurons in the autonomic NS
-preganglionic neurons which are in brain and spinal cord
-Postganglionic neuron extends to the organ
What are the two arms of the autonomic NS
sympathetic and parasympathetic
What is the sympathetic nervous system
-fight or flight
-takes over and increases activities
-think of the E divison
-Exercise, excitment, emergency, embarassment
What is the parasympathetic NS
-rest and digest
-conserve energy
-D division
-Digestion, defecation, dieresis
How do the parasympathetic and sympathetic NS impact the digestive system
Parasympathetic- increase activity
sympathetic- decrease activity
define sensation
The conscious or subconscious awareness of external and internal stimuli
what are the four sensory conditions
-A stimulus or change in the environment, capable of activating certain sensory neurons
-A sensory receptor must convert the stimulus to an electrical signal, which produces one or more nerve impulses if it is large enough.
-The nerve impulses must be conducted along a neural pathway from the sensory receptor to the brain.
-A region of the brain must receive and integrate the nerve impulses into a sensation.
Rods help us see in the _________ and cones help us perceive __________ in the ________
dark;colour;light
What are the steps we see by
- absorption of light by rods and cones, which contain photopigments
- activate bipolar and ganglionic cells
- Image formation on retina involves refraction of light rays by cornea and lens which focus on inverted image on central focus of retina
- For viewing close objects lens increases curvature and pupil constricts to prevent light from entering eye through periphery
myopia
nearsightedness
hyperopia
farsightedness
astigmatism
irregular curvature of cone/lens
What is the process by which we hear
1.Sound waves enter external medullary cavity
2.They strike the eardrum
3.Malleus starts to vibrate, going to the incus and the stapes
4.Stapes moves back and forth, pushing the oval window in and out
5.Oval window movement makes fluid pressure waves
6.Fluid pressure waves are transmitted causing it to bulge outward into the middle ear
7.Pressure waves continue in the cochlear duct
8.Pressure waves cause basilar membrane to vibrate
a. Which moves the hair cells. Bending of the hair cells stimulates hair cells to release NT molecule for nerve impulse
What is referred pain?
When pain you feel in your body is indicating a problem elsewhere
Mechanoreceptors
Somatosensory receptors which relay extracellular stimulus
osmoreceptors
sense osmotic pressure
Chemoreceptors
change in chemical comp of blod
What are the 10 basic endocrine glands
-hypothalamus
-adrenal
-thymus
-pituitary
-thyroid
-ovaries
-parathyroid
-testes
-pineal gland
pancreas
What’s the difference between Lipid and Water soluable hormones
Lipids: affect cell function
Water: Alter cell fxn by activating plasma receptors with elicit production using 2nd messenger system
Insulin
-pancreas
-controls the bodies use of sugar. too much is hypoglycemia, too little is diabetes
Glucagon (Alpha)
-pancreas
-keeps blood sugar levels balanced with insulin
-triggered by drop in blood glucose
Epi and norepi
-released by adrenal gland, increase heart rate, and BP
Thyroid hormones
thyroxine (t4)
Triiodothychone (T3)
Parafollicular
Calcatonin
What is the thyroid mainly responsible for
-regulate oxygen use
-metabolism
-growth
Growth hormone
-anterior pit
-stimulates growth
ADH
-anterior pit
-liquid retention
Acetyl choline
Movement
Fat soluable?
- Steroid hormones diffuse through the plasma membrane of target cells
- Once inside the cell, the hormone enters the nucleus
- Then, the hormone binds to a specific protein within the nucleus
- Hormone-receptor complex binds to specific sites on the cell’s DNA
- Certain genes are activated to transcribe messenger RNA
- New proteins are synthesized
What are the three functions of blood
-Transportation
-regulation
-protection
How does blood help transportation
-Blood transports oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body and carbon dioxide from the cells to the lungs
-carries nutrients from the gastrointestinal tract to body cells
-heat and waste products away from cells
-hormones from endocrine glands to other body cells.
How does blood help with regulation
-Blood helps regulate the pH of body fluids.
-The heat-absorbing and coolant properties of the water in blood plasma and its variable rate of flow through the skin help adjust body temperature.-
- Blood osmotic pressure also influences the water content of cells.
How does blood help protect us?
-forming scabs, and blood clots
-white blood cells (phagocytes)
-producing proteins called antibodies.
-Blood contains additional proteins, called interferons and complement, that also help protect against disease.
What are the three main physical characteristics of blood?
-(thickness) greater than that of water
-temperature of 38˚ (100.4˚F)
- pH range between 7.35 and 7.45
Blood is a _____________________ that consists of cells surrounded by extracellular matrix.
liquid connective tissue
What is the unformed element in blood
plasma
What are the formed elements in blood
-Red blood cells (eurythrocytes)
-white blood cells (leukocytes)
-platelets
What are the types of white blood cells
Agranular and granular
What are the types of agranular leukocytes
-T and B lymphocytes and natural killer cells
-Monocytes (
What are the types of granular leukocytes
- Neutrophils
- Eosinophils
- Basophils
Do erythrocytes contain nuclei
no
What is the average life-span of an erythrocyte?
120 days
How many erythrocytes are in healthy men and women
men- 5.4 million/mL
women- 4.8 million/mL
RBC formation, called __________, occurs in adult red bone marrow.
erythropoiesis
Are Leukocytes nucleated
yes
What is the purpose of leukocytes
to combat inflammation and infection. Neutrophils and macrophages (which develop from monocytes) do so through phagocytosis
What is the average life-span of leukocytes
a few hours to a few days
how many white blood cells to we have on average
5,000-10,000