Biology I Flashcards
Define Metabolism
all chemical reactions in the body. The forming or breaking of chemical bonds with enzymes acting as catalysts.
Define chemical level
includes atoms, smallest level of organization
Define differentiation
is the process where unspecialized cells become specialized
What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum
Complex network of fluid filled membrane enclosed tubules that store Ca + ions needed for muscle contraction
Define integumentary system
a set of organs forming the outermost layer. includes skin, hair, glands, nails.
Recovery oxygen uptake is:
Need to replace [o] levels to pay back for what was used during exsersize
What are the steps of recovery oxygen uptake?
- convert lactic acid back to glycogyn stored in liver
- resynthesize creatine phosphate and ATP
- replace oxygen removed from myoglobin
Define articulation
Location where two or more bones meet
Define homeostasis
ensures that the body’s internal environment remains constant despite external changes
physiology
study of how the body functions
define anatomy
studies the structure of the body and relationship among structures
Define Neuromuscular junction
the synapse formed between the synaptic end bulbs of axon terminals of a motor neuron and motor end plate of a muscle fiber
define hemopoiesis
production of blood cells and platelets. occurs in bone marrow
Define nerve
bundle of fibers that transmit impulses of sensation to brain or spinal cord. impulses from these to muscular organs.
What is saltatory conduction
an electrical pulse skips from node to node down axon to speed transition
All-or-none principle
if it fires it fires, no in between
Define Ganglion
a structure containing a number of nerve cell bodies (linked by synapse) and often forming a swilling on nerve fiber
What is continuous conduction
occurs in unmyelinated axon (like heel to toe walking)
Nociceptors
sensory receptors that detect signals from damaged tissue or threat of damage and indirectly also respond to chemicals released by damaged tissue
Define insertion
more flexible and of muscle that is usually attacked to bone via tendon
Define Origin
reletively less movable end of muscle that is attached to the bone
What are the six levels of organization, and provide examples.
- Chemical level- C,H,N,O,P
- Molecular level- DNA
- Tissue level- epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous
- Organ level- heart, stomach
- System level- Respiratory, digestive. respiratory
- Organismal level
11 system
-integumentary
-muscular systems
-skeletal
-nervous
-lymphatic
-Urinary
-digestive
-reproduction
-respiratory
-CV
-Endocrine
What are the 6 life processes
- Metabolism
- Responsiveness
- Movement
- Growth
- Differentiation
- reproduction
What are the three main good things for water
-Water (60-80% of body mass, allows metabolic reactions)
-Maintain stable body temp
-maintain atmospheric pressure
define superior and inferior
s: nearer to the head
i: Nearer to feet
define anterior and posterior
a: front
p: back
define medial and lateral
m: nearer to midline
l: further from midline
define proximal and distal
p: nearer to trunk/origin
d: further from
define ipsilateral
on the same side of the body as
define contralateral
opposite side of the body
define intermediate
between two structures
explain a sagital section
divides into left and right portions
explains median/midsagital section
divides into equal left and right portions
explain frontal section
cut of face
explain a transverse cut
divides into superior and inferior
explain oblique cut
at an angle
what are the 5 body cavities
cranial, vertebral, thoracic, diaphragm, abdominal, pelvic
The upper part of the abdomen is called________________ and the lower part is called __________________
epigastric; suprapubic
What membranes are found in the Thoracic cavity
Pleural - lungs
pericardial - heart
mediastinum - heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, blood vessels
What are the three main parts of a homeostatic feedback loop?
- Receptor
- Control center
- Effector
Explain a positive feedback loop and give examples
occurs when a product of a reaction leads to an increase of that reaction. Moves further from equilibrium. Eg. Childbirth
Explain a negative feedback loop and give examples
serves to reduce an excessive response to keep body in equilibrium or bring it back
What are the 5 steps of a feedback loop
- Stimulus
- Receptor
- control center
4.effector - response
- return to homeostasis
What are some signs of aging
-wrinkled skin
-gray hair
-loss of bone mass
-decreased muscle mass
-slower reflexes
What are the components of the integumentary system
skin, hair, oil and sweat glands, nails, sensory receptors
What are the functions of the integumentary system
- Body temp
- protection
- cutaneous sensation
- excretion and absorption
- Synthesis of vitamin D
How does the Integumentary system regulate body temp
sweat, blood flow
How does the Integumentary system protect us
-Keratin protects underlying tissue
-Lipids prevent excessive h2o evap
-sebum keeps us moist
-protects from sun damage
How does the Integumentary system synthesize vitamin d
exposure to sun activates vitamin D and converts it to its active form called calitrol that aids the absorption of [Ca] and [P]
What are the three skin layers
Epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis
What are the 5 layers of epidermis
-stratum corneum
-stratum lucidum
-Stratum granulosum
-stratum spinosum
-stratum basale
What is included in the stratum corneum
25-30 layers of flat, dead keratinocytes. these are constantly being lost and replaced. Callus is abnormal thickening of corneum. ONLY PRESENT IN THICK SKIN
Stratum gransulosum
3-5 layers of flattened keratinocytes that are undergoing apoptosis (programmed cell death) where the nucleus fragments before cells dies. release lipids
What does that stratum spinosum do
8-10 layers of many sided keratinocytes that fit together closely. provide strength and flexability to skin.
What does stratum basale do ?
Single row of cuboidal/columnar keratinocytes. some are stem cells that become keratinocytes
What are the three types of pigmentation
- Melanin: brown/black pigmentation
- Hemoglobin: red pigmentation
- carotene: yellow-orange
What are the three types of glands
Sebaceous glands, Sudoriferous glands, Ceruminous glands
What do sebaceous glands do, and where are they found?
-Usually connected to hair follicles
-none on palms and soles
-secrete sebum to keep us moist and soft, as well as inhibiting bacteria growth
-increases during adolesence
What do Eccrine glands do? Where can they be found?
Function: control temp, secrete things
location: found everywhere but lips, nails, toes, penis, clitoris, labia minora, and ear drums
What do apocrine glands do? Where are they found?
Function: Excrete apocrine sweat during sexual activity
location: armpit, groin, nipples, and beards
What are ceruminous glands
secrete cerumen (earwax)
What are the functions of the skeletal system
- support
- protection
- movement
- mineral homeostasis
- blood cell production
- triglyceride storage
What are the four types of bone cells and what do they do?
Osteoprogenitor cells: makes up most connective tissue, only bone cell to undergo cell division, resulting cells turn into osteoblasts, found in inner portion and periosteum and endosteum and cannals
Osteoblasts: bone building cells
osteoclasts- big cells derived from as many as 50 WBC and release lysosomic enzymes that break down and reabsorb bone.
Osteocytes: Mature bone cells that maintain daily metabolism
What are the seven bone parts
- Diaphysis
- Epiphysis
- Metaphyses
- Articular cartilage
- Periosteum
- medullary cavity
- endosteum
What is the diaphysis
long shaft of the bone
What is the epiphysis
distal and proximal ends of the bone
what is the metaphyses
where the diaphysis joins epiphysis
What is the articular cartilage
Covers joint to reduce friction and shock
What is the periosteum
tough sheath that goes where there is no articular cartilage
What is the medullary cavity
an open cavity for yellow bone marrow
What is the endosteum
lines medullary cavity and contains 1 layer of bone forming cells
How many bones are in the adult body? How many in infants?
206, 270
What are the four classes of bones
Long, short, irregular, and flat
Describe long bones and provide examples
greater in length than width, and are slightly curved for strength. Eg. Femur, humerus, tibea, fibula, phalanges
Describe short bones and provide examples
Cube shaped and nearly equal in length and width. Eg. wrist and ankle bones.
Describe flat bones and provide examples
thin, protective, and provide extensive surface for muscle attachment. Eg. Cranial bones, sternum, ribs
Describe irregular bones and provide examples
complex shape that dosen’t fit into any other grouping. Eg. vertebrae, facial bones.
What are the 4 basic fracture types?
Partial: bone not broken all the way through
Complete: bone in 2+ pieces
Closed (simple): doesn’t break through skin
Open (compound): breaks though skin
What are the two girdle types?
Pectoral, pelvic
What bones are involved in the pectoral girdle?
clavicle and scapula. clavicle articulates with sternum and scapula articulates with clavicle and humerus. does not articulate with vertebral column
What bones are involved with the pelvic girdle?
Two hip bones, called coxal bones. Hip bones unite at a joint called the pubic symphysis, they unite with sacrum at sarcoiliac joint.
What is the purpose of the pelvic girdle?
Provides strong, stable support. protects the pelvic viscera and attaches lower limbs
What is the pelvic brim? What does it connect?
Line that connects the true and false pelvic bones
What is the difference between the true and false pelvic bones
false (greater): doesn;t contain pelvic organs except the bladder when full and the uterus when pregnant. Inlet
true (lesser): surrounds pelvic cavity and contains pelvic axis. outlet
Why is it important to expose the bones to mechanical stress
bones get stronger in response. lack of mechanical stress leads to demineralization (loss of bone strength)
What are the two types of Bone formation
Intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification
What are the steps of intramembranous ossification
- Development of ossification center
- calcification
- formation of trabuculae
- development of periosteum
What are the steps of endochondral ossification
- Development of cartilage
- Growth of cartilage model
- development of primary ossification center
- development of medullary cavity
- development of the secondary ossification center
- Formation of articular cartilage and epiphyseal plate
What are the functions of the muscular system?
- Producing body movement
- Stabilizing body positions
- storing and moving substances within the body (sphincters)
- producing heat
What are the functions of the muscular system?
- Producing body movement
- Stabilizing body positions
- storing ad moving substances within the body
- Producing heat
How does the muscular system help to store and move substances withing the body?
-storage using sphincters
-cardiac muscles move blood
-smooth muscles help flow of GI tract
-skeletal muscles assist in blood flow
What are the types of muscles?
-Skeletal
-cardiac
-smooth
What are the types of contraction?
Eccentric- elongates
concentric- shortening of muscle
isometric- isn’t changing length
What are the basic quadricep muscles
-rectus femoris
-vastus lateralis
-vastus intermedius
-vastus medialis
What are the basic hamstring muscles
-biceps femoris
-semitendinosus
-semimembranosus
What are the basic rotator cuff muscles
-subscapularis
-teres MINOR
-supraspinatus
-infraspinatus
Aging and the muscular system
-between 30-50 there is slow decline in muscle strength
-(SO) fibers increase
-40% of muscles lost between 50-80
4 ways ATP is generated
- Creatine phosphate (15 sec. of muscle contraction)
- Krebs cycle (aerobic)
- Glycolosis (anaerobic)
- Electron transport chain (anaerobic)
What is produced in Creatine phosphate
1 ATP
What is produced in Krebs cycle
occurs in mitochondria, 2 pyruvates make 2 NADH and total to 2 ATP
What is produced in glycolosis
breaking up glucose for net 2 ATP, 2 pyruvates, and 2 NADH
what is produced in the ETC
34 ATP
What are the three functions of the NS
- sensory
- integrative
- motor
What makes up the CNS
Brain and spinal cord
What makes up the PNS
SNS, ANS, ENS
What makes up the SNS
Somatic nervous system consist of sensory neurons that conduct impulses from somatic special sense receptors to the CNS, and motor neurons from PNS. (voluntary)
What makes up the ANS
contains sensory neurons from visceral organs and motor neurons that convey impulses from the CNS to smooth muscle tissue, cardiac tissue and glands. (involuntary)
What makes up the ENS
controls the gut, functioning somewhat independently of ANS and CNS
What are the functional cells of the NS
neurons
What are the three main portions of a neuron
dendrites, axon, cell body
What are the three neuron structures
- unipolar
- bipolar
- multipolar
3 neuron types
- sensory (afferent)
- motor (efferent)
- interneurons
What are neuroglia, what do they do?
Specialized cells that support nurture and protect neurons. They maintain interstitial fluid
What are the neuroglia found in the CNS
astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglial cells, and ependymal cells
What are the neuroglia found in the PNS
Schwann cells and satellite cells
Which types of neuroglia form myelin sheath
oligodendrocytes and schwann cells
What is involved in gray matter
cell bodies, dendrites, axon terminals, unmyelinated axons, and neuroglia
What is involved with white matter
agregets and myelinated axons
What is a ganglion, and a nucleus
cluster of neuronal cell bodies located in the PNS, nucleus is a cluster of cell bodies located in the CNS
What are bundles of axons
nerves
What is resting membrane potential
when muscle cells are at rest and potential the voltage across the plasma membrane is termed resting.
What makes up the brain stem
continuation of the spinal cord, medulla oblogata, pons, and midbrain
What is CSF
clear liquid that carried [o], glucose, and other chemicals to neurons and neuroglia and remove waste. Circulated in subarachnoid space in brain and spinal cord
What is the pons responsible for
links medulla with midbrain and forms connection with cerebellum. relays nerve impulse related to sensory input and movement
What is the midbrain responsible for
movement of head, eyes, trunk, in response to visual stimuli
What 3 structures are involved in the diencephalon
thalamus, hypothalamus, and pineal gland
What is the hypothalamus responsible for
body temp, water balance, metabolism
What’s up with the cerebrum
-allows us to write, read, speak, calculate, make music, remember, plan, and create
-folds to fit
-four lobes
What does the limbic system do?
Acts as he emotional brain.
What are the two types of reflexes?
Somatic and Autonomic
What are the 5 steps of a reflex arc
- sensory receptor
- sensory neuron
- integrating center
- motor neuron
- effector
What are the three layers of connective tissue in spinal cord
-dura mater
-arachnoid mater
-pia mater
how long is the spinal cord (typically)
18 inches, 45 cm
Three steps of action potential
depolarization, repolarization, and hyperpolarization
What is the value of resting potenial
-70 mV
What is the threshold value
-55 mV
What are the 3 sources for ATP production
-creatine phosphate
-Anaerobic respiration (glycolosis)
-Aerobic respiration
explain creatine P
Transfer of high energy phosphate group from creatine P to ADP to create ATP
Together how long can creatine P and ATP make a a muscle contract maxiamally for
together, creatine phosphate and ATP provide
enough energy for muscles to contract maximally for
about 15 seconds.
Expain anaerobic cellular respiration and how long it works for
GLYCOLOSIS
Glucose is converted to pyruvic acid in the
reactions of glycolysis, which yield two
ATPs without using oxygen.
These reactions, referred to as anaerobic
cellular respiration, can provide enough
ATP for about 30 to 40 seconds of maximal
muscle activity.
Explain Aerobic cellular respiration
Necessary for muscular activity that last for longer than half a minute requires Aerobic respiration
-these are mitochondrial reactions that are required to produce ATP
- yields about 36
molecules of ATP from each glucose
molecule.
