Psych/Soc: Self-Identity and Social Interactions Flashcards
Self-concept and examples
Is self-identity and includes all your beliefs about who you are as a person
It is made up of personal identity (caring) and social identity (Age, Disability, Religion, Ethnicity/Race, Sexual orientation, Socioeconomic status, national origin, gender)
ex.
Self-schema
Beliefs and ideas you have about yourself; they guide and organize processing of information that is relevant to you -> includes personal (funny, tall, nervous), past (I came from Germany), present (I am in class now), future (I will be a good physician)
Self-reference effect
Remembering info relevant to ourselves
Self-efficacy
Belief in one’s own competence and effectiveness,
how capable we are of doing something
Locus of control
Whether you think you have control over what happens to you
Internal locus control
-> you believe you have control over events
External locus control
-> you do not believe you have control over events
Does internal/external locus of control and high/low efficacy hinder performance more?
What is learned helplessness?
external and low
Learned helplessness ->
HAS TO BE LEARNED by experience
ppl exposed to situations where they have no control and they learn not to act (even when they are able to exert control in a different environment)
*Self-esteem
One’s self worth
Sanctions
Formal/informal norms
Sanction = “punishment” (like a glare) if you don’t follow norms
Formal/informal norms -> formal norms =laws and informal = generally understood
Howard Becker’s Labeling theory and self-fulfilling prophecy
suggests that deviance is the result of society’s response to a person rather than inherent in the person’s actions, society will label them regardless of their actions
Individuals might internalize labels and redefine their concept of the self =
Self-fulfilling prophecies (ex. prejudices about ppl)
Edwin Sutherland’s differential association
Deviance is a learned behavior resulting from interactions b/w individuals and their communities
Robert Merton’s structural strain theory
Deviance is the result of experienced strain, either individual or structural
ex. some ppl poor bc gov not helping them so they turn to drug dealing
Collective behavior
Basically behavior of dumb masses
Where social norms are absent or unclear
Loss of individual and moral judgement in exchange for a sense of the group -> riots and mobs
spontaneous situations
Assimilation
Process where an individual forsakes aspects of his or her own cultural tradition to adopt those of different culture
Amalgamation
Multiculturalism/ pluralism
Amalgamation - Occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group
Multiculturalism/ pluralism - equal standing for all cultures/ true melting pot
*Subculture
segment of society that shares a distinct pattern of traditions and values
ex. bike enthusiasts, bartenders, medical personnel
*Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
The degree to which being a moral person is important to a person's identity (there's a chart of stages) 3 levels (stages each), 6 stages of moral development most adults attain but do not pass the 4th stage Level 1 -pre-coventional level of moral understanding - typical of children - moral based on consequences for self Level 2- conventional level of moral understanding - typical of adolescents and adult - morals based on comparing actions to society's views and expectations Level 3 - Post-conventional of moral undertsanding - Many ppl never reach - morals based on justice and laws are social contracts to be changed when do not promote general welfare
*Dispositional attribution
Attribute behavior to internal causes
Ex. driver cuts you off so you call him a jerk
*Situational attribution
Attribute behavior to external causes
Ex. driver cuts you off so you think wow that driver must be in a hurry bc of an emergency
To determine whether we attribute behavior to internal or external causes: Consistency, Distinctiveness, Consensus
With ex of angry friend
Consistency - is friend always angry? Distinctiveness - Is friend angry only at you or multiple ppl? If multiple then internal more likely
Consensus - Are other ppl mad? If s likely external cause
*Fundamental attribution error
Assumption that ppl are how they act, we tend to attribute other people’s actions to their personalities
We tend to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of a person’s character or personality
ex. that driver that cut you off is a jerk in general, rather than thinking that he was in a rush to the hospital
*Actor-observer bias
We blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities
*Self-serving bias
Tendency to attribute successes to ourselves and failures to other or environment
*Optimism bias
Belief that bad things happen to other people, but not to us
*Just world phenonemon
tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve. When bad things happen to them, it is a result of their actions or their failure to act, not because sometimes bad things happen to good people. Similarly, when good things happen, it is bc we deserved it.
Hindsight bias
or the knew-it-all-along effect is tendency to believe that an event was predictable after it has already occurred
Social perception
the understanding of others in our social world; it is the initial formation we process about other people in order to try to understand their mindsets and intentions
*Self-fulfilling prophecy
Occurs when an individual unknowingly and unintentionally causes something to happen, due to the simple fact that they expect it to happen, or when an individual unwittingly confirms a stereotype about themselves
Stereotypes can lead to behaviors that affirm the original stereotypes in what is known
By definition, in the beginning, this is a false definition of the situation that evokes a new behavior which makes the original false conception come true. This perpetuates the error
*Stereotype threat
Stereotype boost
When ppl are in situations where they are at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their own social group
When there are negative stereotypes about social group, group members are likely to become anxious about their performance which may hinder their ability to perform at their max
Stereotype boost occurs when ppl perform better than they otherwise would have, bc of exposure to positive stereotypes about their social group
*Ethnocentrism
tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards of one’s own culture
Cultural relativism
Cultural relativism, on the other hand, refers to an awareness of differences across cultures in norms, values, and other elements of culture.
Primary groups
play a more important role in an individual’s life (fam, friends)
Secondary groups
is larger and more impersonal, and may interact for specific reasons for shorter periods of time
(school peeps, work peeps)
Expressive functions
Primary groups have expressive function bc they meet emotional needs
Instrumental functions
Secondary groups have have instrumental functions bc they meet pragmatic needs ex. study group, work group
*In-group
out-group
Reference group
In-group -> A group that an individual belongs to and believes to be integral part of who she is
out-group -> A group that an individual does not belong to
Reference group -> what people compare themselves to and may be a part of
Aggregate
People who exist in the same space but do not interact or share a common sense of identity
ex. all the people who go to a coffee shop
*McDonaldization
McDonaldization refers to principles of the fast-food industry dominating other sectors of society
Similar example - privitized hospitals and patients treated as profit
This process has four components that reflect the principles of bureaucracy: efficiency, calculability (assessing performance through quantity and/or speed output), predictability, and control (automating work where possible in order to make results more predictable)
Iron Law of Oligarchy
The “iron law of oligarchy” states that all forms of organizaton develop oligarchic tendencies, especially in large groups and complex organizatons, some power will be concentrated, thereby establishing a new ruling class. The few come to rule the many
**Social facilitation effect
Arousal
Can either mean perform something well or poorly in presence of others but typically refers to when performance is improved when doing a task you have done before in front of other people
Tendency of performance to improve for simple, well-ingrained tasks. Social facilitation tends to not occur for novel, complex tasks
Arousal -> performance improves with arousal stimulated by presence of others
*Deindividualization
Deindividualization for LARGE GROUPS NOT SMALL GROUPS
Due to arousal and low sense of responsibility, people many lose their sense of restraint and their individual identity in exchange for identifying with the group of mob mentality, burn witches
*Bystander effect
Kitty Genovese
Kitty Genovese -> stabbed in NYC but neighbors did not help
The finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders bc there is a diffusion of responsibility
Social loafing
Tendency for people to exert less effort if they are being evaluated as a group than if they are individually accountable
*Group polarization
lil extra -> Informational influence, normative influence, social comparison
When groups intensify preexisting views of their members, their ideas become more extreme
Informational influence -> group discussion, the most common ideas emerge are the ones that favor dominant POV and persuades others
Normative influence -> based on social desirability/ wanting to be accepted by others
social comparison -> evaluating our opinions by comparing them to others
*Groupthink
Mindguarding
When desire to achieve harmony and reach a ‘consensus’ decision causes groups to not critically evaluate alternative viewpoints and leads to irrational and dysfunctional decision making
- overly optimistic and strongly believes in its stance
- Demonizes opponents
- Dissenting opinions, information, and facts are prevented from permeating the group (processing called mindguarding)
- Individuals feel pressure to censor their own opinions
***MCAT: Groupthink is often given as answer choice with group polarization so…
Group polarization: intensification of preexisting views
Group think - decision making process
*Solomon Asch’s experiment
Wanted to test effects of group pressure or peer pressure on individuals behavior. in the experiment, subjects were asked in a group to determine which of the three lines was the most similar to a comparison line. In first part of experiment confederates responded correctly and then wrongly and others then agreed with the wrong answer! = conformity
*ON MCAT: Stanley Milgram’s experiment
HIGH YIELD
Study of obedience involving fake shocks and participants we told by researchers to administer the shocks when a confederate (posing as student participant) got a memory question wrong. They heard shouts of pain but still administered shock!
Shows ppl obedient
*If teacher was closer to experimenter, more likely to give shock, etc but overall which authority figure present, teacher will listen to authority
Master status
Ascribed status
Achieved status
Master status -> is the one that dominates the others and determines that individual’s general position in society
Ascribed status -> status assigned to us by society regardless of person’s efforts (race, gender)
Achieved status -> status due to individual’s efforts (doctor, parent, Democrat)
Role conflict
When there is a conflict in society’s expectations for multiple statuses held by same person (male nurse, gay priest)
Role strain
When a single status results in conflicting expectations ex. a homosexual man may feel pressure to avoid being “too gay” and also “not gay enough.”
Role exit
Disengaging from a role that has become closely tied to one’s identity
*Dramaturgical perspective
Stems from symbolic interactionism
We imagine ourselves as playing certain roles when interacting with others; we base our self-presentations on cultural values, norms, and expectations. The goal is to present an acceptable self to others
back stage self around fam, friends, where we can be true selves
Front stage where we craft the way we come across to others
*Impression management/self-presentation
Where we attempt to manage out own image by influencing the perceptions of others
mere exposure effect
People prefer repeated exposure to same stimuli, ex befriend, marry people who you see the most often, in close proximity
Elaboration likelihood model:
If target characteristics include high motivation and ability to think about message -> ____(lasting/temporary) change that resists fading and counter attacks
Explains when people will be influenced by the content of the speech and when people will be influenced by the content of the speech
If target characteristics include high motivation and ability to think about message -> lasting change that resists fading and counter attacks
If it were low motivation it would be temp change
*Message characteristics
Source characteristics
Target characteristics
Message characteristics - features of the message like key points but also grammar, length, etc.
Source characteristics - focus on person’s expertise, knowledge, and trustworthiness
Target characteristics - focus on person receiving message, such as self-esteem, intelligence, mood, etc
*Two cognitive routes: central route and peripheral route for persuasion and outcomes for each regarding change (lasting or temporary)
Central route based on content of argument, lasting change
Peripheral route based on superficial or secondary characteristics of speech or orator (attractiveness, number of points), temporary change
Martin Seligman experiments with dogs
Learned helplessness with dogs, electric shock
*Aversive control
When behavior is motivated by the reality or threat of something unpleasant happening
Social mores
Online: A set of moral norms or customs derived from generally accepted practices. Mores derive from the established practices of a society rather than its written laws.
ex. It is not considered acceptable or mainstream to abuse drugs, particularly those such as heroin and cocaine.
Aversive control
when behavior is motivated by the reality or threat of something unpleasant happening
ex escape or avoidance behavior
Social learning theory (there are other names too)
Learning takes place in social contexts and can occur purely through observation even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement; this is known as social learning, vicarious learning, or observational learning
Social comparison theory
We all have a drive to gain accurate self-evaluations by comparing ourselves to others. Our identity will be shaped by these comparisons and the types of reference groups we have
*Perspective-taking/role-taking
The ability to understand the cognitive and affective aspects of another person’s POV; also known as role-taking
As cognitive development occurs during childhood, children are better able to understand the feelings and perspectives of others
Foot in the door technique
Asking for a small request first then a much larger request next; after an individual complies with a small request they are more likely to then comply with a larger second request
What is the door-in-the-face technique?
Asking for a large request first, then a much smaller request; an individual who has first shot down a large request is more likely to comply with a much smaller second request
Low ball technique
Getting someone to agree to something at a low cost (can be monetary, time commitment, or anything similar) then increasing the cost like a car salesman
Ingratiation technique
Norm of reciprocity
Ingratiation technique -> Gaining compliance by gaining personal approval from an individual first
Norm of reciprocity -> we are more likely to comply with a request from someone who has done us a favor in the past
Harry Harlow & Margaret Experiment
Harlow conducted a series of experiments on monkeys, which were prompted by the observation that when isolated baby monkeys were separated from their blankets, they became very distressed bc they had formed an intense attachment to the object
The Harlows constructed two surrogate wire “mothers”: one with bare wire and a bottle, another with a cloth covering but no bottle
CONTRARY to their hypothesis, they found that the baby monkeys strongly preferred the soft cloth mother and only went to the nutrient mother briefly for food
Mary Ainsworth experiment
Securely attached Insecurely attached Ambivalent attachment Avoidant Attachment Disorganized attachment
Conducted a series of experiments called the “strange situation experiments,” where mothers would temporarily leave their toddlers in a playroom with an unfamiliar person and Ainsworth studied the toddlers’ behavior during the mother’s absence and upon her return
These studies suggested that attachment styles varied among children:
Securely attached toddlers happily explore their surroundings while mother is present and cry when she leaves, but are quickly consoled upon her return
-> securely attached toddlers have sensitive and responsive caregivers
Insecurely attached toddlers demonstrate several profiles (insecurely attached toddlers have insensitive and inconsistently responsive caregivers)
- Ambivalent attachment - when mother leaves, toddler cries loudly, but unlike securely attached toddlers, they remain upset even after mom returns
- Avoidant Attachment - toddler demonstrates seeming indifference to mother’s departure and return (behavioral signs indicate indifference, physiological data - blood pressure, cortisol levels, etc) show toddler is in fact experiencing stress
- Disorganized attachment - toddler cannot predict the mother’s behavior, which can include frightening gestures, abuse, and neglect -> infant may cling to stranger, walk backwards in room
