Psittacines Journal Article Quick Review Flashcards
Review Avian Skull Anatomy
Hébert, J. A. (2019). Closed Reduction of a Rostroparasphenopalatal Luxation in a Red-crowned Parakeet (Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae). Journal of avian medicine and surgery, 33(3), 285-288.
Doneley, R. J. (2021). Transsinus Pinning to Correct Lateral Deviation of the Upper Beak in Juvenile Macaws. Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery, 35(1), 68-74.
Describe features of horners syndrome in birds.
Hill, A. G. (2018). A retrospective study of Horner Syndrome in Australian wild birds, 2010–2016. Journal of avian medicine and surgery, 32(2), 115-121.
LaChance, M. K., Fitzgerald, G., Lair, S., & Desmarchelier, M. R. (2019). Horner syndrome in birds of prey. Journal of avian medicine and surgery, 33(4), 381-387.
Ptosis, unilateral feather erection +/- miosis (inconsistent)
Mammals - also enophthalmos, 3rd eyelid protrusion
What were the effects of a deslorelin implant in cockatiels? Compare to other spp.
Summa, N. M., Guzman, D. S. M., Wils-Plotz, E. L., Riedl, N. E., Kass, P. H., & Hawkins, M. G. (2017). Evaluation of the effects of a 4.7-mg deslorelin acetate implant on egg laying in cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus). American journal of veterinary research, 78(6), 745-751.
4.7 mg deslorelin implant stopped egg laying in cockatiels for up to 180 days (~6mos).
Transient skin irritation at implant site.
GnRH agonist - stimulates pituitary to increase LH and FSH -> increased sex hormones. Results in internalization of GnRH receptors and decrease in sex hormones.
Report of death with leuprolide in elf owls.
Deslorelin stopped egg laying in other spp:
Pigeons < 2 mos
Japanese Quail 2 mos
Mallards 2-3 mos
Chx, cockatiels 6 mos
Budgies 9 mos
LPS model vs celacoxib, mavacoxib, meloxicam in cockatiels? What decreased clinical signs and what decreased PGE?
Development of an In Vivo Lipopolysaccharide Inflammation Model to Study the Pharmacodynamics of COX-2 Inhibitors Celecoxib, Mavacoxib, and Meloxicam in Cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus)
Elke Gasthuys, Renee Houben, Roel Haesendonck, Siegrid De Baere, Joachim Morrens, Gunther Antonissen
Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery 33(4):349–360, 2019
LPS induced hypothermia.
Mavacoxib and celecoxib reduced hypothermia, no clear effect on other clinical signs.
Meloxicam best for decreasing PGE levels but least effective at reducing clinical signs. PGE levels highest with mavacoxib.
Mavacoxib and celecoxib Cox-2 selective, meloxicam decreases cox-1 at high doses.
Cox-2 is more specific vs inflammation, Cox-1 also GI/renal/clotting.
What was observed in HAPs exposed to fluorescent lighting vs outdoor sunlight?
Effects of Fluorescent Lighting Versus Sunlight Exposure on Calcium, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Feather Destructive Behavior in Hispaniolan Amazon Parrots (Amazona ventralis)
Jennifer A. West et al.
Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery 33(3):235–244, 2019Authors
HAPs housed outdoors had improved serum vit D (calcifediol), improved feather quality.
Indoor group could not maintain vit D levels.
Both groups no change in Ca or Mg.
Treatment options for iron storage disease in psittacines?
IRON STORAGE DISEASE IN AFRICAN GREY PARROTS (PSITTACUS ERITHACUS) EXPOSED TO A CARNIVOROUS DIET
O’Connor MR, Garner MM.
J Zoo Wildl Med. 2018 Mar;49(1):172-177.
Liver bx, prussian blue stain gold standard diagnosis.
Serum iron and transferrin saturation not reliable.
Tx: Low iron diet, repeated phlebotomy, chelation with deferoxamine or deferiprone, add tannins, decrease vitamin C.
Hindlimb paralysis in Carnaby’s cockatoos suspected to be due to what toxicity?
HINDLIMB PARALYSIS SYNDROME IN WILD CARNABY’S COCKATOOS (CALYPTORHYNCHUS LATIROSTRIS): A NEW THREAT FOR AN ENDANGERED SPECIES
Anna Le Souëf, Simone Vitali, Rick Dawson, Rebecca Vaughan-Higgins, Kristin Warren
J Wildl Dis. 2020 Jul;56(3):609-619.
Delayed onset neuropathy suspected due to organophosphate toxicity.
OP tox = anti-cholinesterase toxin that inhibits acetylcholine. Acute resp and cardiac arrest, can have chronic neuro signs.
Most commonly presented summer and fall. No other local avian spp affected at this time.
Describe features of avian chlamyiosis.
Transmission, clinical signs, case definition for confirmed case, diagnosis, tx.
Recommendations for controlling infection.
Compendium of Measures to Control Chlamydia psittaci Infection Among Humans (Psittacosis) and Pet Birds (Avian Chlamydiosis), 2017
Gary Balsamo, Angela M. Maxted, Joanne W. Midla, Julia M. Murphy, Ron Wohrle, et. al.
Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery 31(3):262–282, 2017
Transmission - excreted in ocular and nasal discharge, feces. Subclinical carriers and shedders.
CS - conjunctivitis, oculonasal discharge, URI, diarrhea, liver dz (abnormal feces color).
Case definition needs at least one of the following:
Isolation of C. psittaci from clinical specimen.
ID chlamydia DNA (PCR) - IHC is NOT diagnostic
4x or greater change in serologic titer at least 2 wks apart assayed at same lab
ID intracellular bacteria with Gimenez or Macchiavello stain + C. psittaci DNA in same tissue.
Suspected case = CS and one of the following:
Chlamydia PCR on conj/choanal/cloacal swabs or blood or feces.
Chlamydia antigen IFA on feces, cloacal swab, resp secretion (cross reacts with non chlamydia spp).
Epidemiological link to a known/confirmed case.
Dx: Combo of culture, PCR, Ab detection recommended. Post mortem spleen or liver preferred for culture. Live birds - combo of conjunctival/choanal/cloacal swab culture or liver bx and culture.
Ab tests: positive serologic test just indicates exposure at some point, but not that the animal is still infectious.
False negative in acute infection
4 fold or greater increase in serologic titer OR a combination of positive titer and antigen ID is needed
Elementary body agglutination (elementary body is the infectious form of C psittaci). Favors detection of IgM which reach high levels in acute stage of infection. Titers 10 or higher are positive. But increased titers can persist after successful treatment
Indirect fluorescent ab test: IgG ab. Sensitivity and specificity not great, can get cross reaction
Complement fixation: more sensitive than agglutination, but false negatives esp form parakeets, African gray parrots and lovebirds.
High titers persist after treatment
Modified direct more sensitive than direct
Tests for antigen: do not require live organisms. Can get false positives. And cross reaction can occur. False negatives if shedding is intermittent.
ELISA not recommended
Fluorescent ab test: used to detect organism on impression smears . lots of cross reactivity. Not recommended.
Test for DNA -PCR is sensitive and specific to detection of target DNA sequences. , but results differ between labs because no standardized primers and lab techniques. Not all PCR can tell apart different chlamydia
In-situ hybridization preferred method for documenting chlamydial organisms with in fixed tissue.
Additional testing
Genotyping: Genotype A predominates in psittacines. Genotype B predominates in columbiformes.
Screening protocols using diagnostic tests:
Use PCR that can distinguish C psittaci from other related Chlamydia.
At least test cockatiels, lovebirds, larger psittacines tested on conj-choana-cloaca swab during quarantine.
Conjunctiva is most sensitive for detecting chronically infected cockatiels with minimal CS
In budgies ONLY- house 20-25 birds together for 12-24 hours and then collect composite swab from the floor, perches, rims of water and food bowls, and feces, pool it and test. Not shown to be effective in other sps.
Tx - Doxycycline, 21-30 days (45 days historically). Remove extra dietary Ca, can inhibit absorption. Budgies and cockatiels have a medicated feed that is approved. Do NOT use medicated water for budgies, doesn’t maintain concentrations.
Recommendations:
Educate persons at risk: respiratory or influenza-like symptoms should seek prompt medical attention and let health care provider know about bird contact.
Reduce risk of transmission to humans: PPE: coveralls, gloves, eyewear, footwear, N95 mask. NX of suspect cases in biosafety cabinet
- maintain accurate records of bird related transactions for at least 1 year
Avoid purchase or selling birds with resp illness could be associated with chlamydia
Avoid mixing birds from multiple sources
Quarantine new birds
Test birds for chlamydia status before acquiring birds
Screen birds with frequent public contact
Practice preventative husbandry- non-dusty bedding, clean things regularly, disinfect (susceptible to detergents, heat. Resistant to alkali and acid)- best to use quaternary ammonium compounds or oxidizing agents.
Care for sick birds last
Which clostridium has been associated with necrotic enteritis in macaws?
De Santi, M., Schocken-Iturrino, R. P., Casagrande, M. F., Boarini, L., de Souza Pollo, A., & Werther, K. (2020). Necrotic enteritis caused by Clostridium perfringens in blue and gold macaws (Ara ararauna). Journal of avian medicine and surgery, 34(1), 65-69.
Clostridium perfringens type A - necrotic enteritis macaws.
Type A and C in poultry.
Commensals but immunosuppression causes mortality.
What two spp of non-candida albicans yeast have been associated with GI signs?
Donnelly, K. A., Wellehan, J. F., & Quesenberry, K. (2019). Gastrointestinal disease associated with non-albicans Candida species in six birds. Journal of avian medicine and surgery, 33(4), 413-418.
C. glabrata and C. krusei identified as causative agents of GI dz in birds.
Assoc with Abx treatment history, immunosuppression. Usually normal flora.
Compare and contrast cryptococcus neoformans and cryptococcus gattii as pathogens in birds.
A Disseminated Cryptococcus gattii VGIIa Infection in a Citron-Crested Cockatoo (Cacatua sulphurea citrinocristata) in Québec, Canada
Maccolini ÉO, Dufresne PJ, Aschenbroich SA, McHale B, Fairbrother JH, Bédard C, Hébert JA.
J Avian Med Surg. 2017 Jun;31(2):142-151.
Multicentric Cryptococcosis in a Congo African Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus erithacus).
Schunk RSK, Sitinas NE, Quesenberry KE, Grodio JL.
J Avian Med Surg. 2017 Dec;31(4):373-381.
C. neoformans = opportunistic infecting immunocompromised, most common. Generally neuro and lower resp signs in birds.
C. gattii = primary pathogen, infects immunocompetent. Generally upper resp/beak lesions. Assocition with warm climates and eucalyptus trees
Both cause disseminated infection, inhalation most common route of infection. Thick gelatinous exudate is a hallmark of infection. Debulking gross lesions is recommended. Px always guarded.
What was a helpful blood analyte for monitoring response to treatment for parrots with sarcocystis?
What clinical sign was a risk factor for death?
Sarcocystosis In A Captive Flock Of Thick-billed Parrots (Rhynchopsitta Pachyrhyncha) From 2005 To 2016: Morbidity, Mortality, Diagnostics, And Management Strategies
Anne E. Rivas, Kenneth Conley, Tracie A. Seimon, Charlotte Hollinger, Heather Knych, Robert P. Moore, and Jean A. Pare
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 52(1): 206–216, 2021
Sarcocystis falcatula is the most common spp in psittacines.
Dyspnea was a risk factor for death.
PCR was more sensitive in early disease. CK used to monitor response to treatment.
Tx - pyrimethamine and ponazuril and TMS combo x 6 mos, did not clear infection.
Effective prevention measures - Food stations that exclude arthropod/rodent hosts, daily prophylactic diclazuril.
What pathogen has been associated with granulomatous conjunctivitis in cockatiels?
Lamb, S. K., Reavill, D., Wolking, R., & Dahlhausen, B. (2020). Retrospective Review of Mycobacterial Conjunctivitis in Cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus). Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery, 34(3), 250-259.
Mycobacterium genavense
What is the gold standard for diagnosis of mycobacteriosis?
MYCOBACTERIOSIS IN CAPTIVE PSITTACINES: A BRIEF REVIEW AND CASE SERIES IN COMMON COMPANION SPECIES (ECLECTUS RORATUS, AMAZONA ORATRIX, AND PIONITES MELANOCEPHALA)
McRee AE, Higbie CT, Nevarez JG, Rademacher NT, Tully TN Jr.
J Zoo Wildl Med. 2017 Sep;48(3):851-858.
Dx gold standard = biopsy of affected tissue with consistent histo, culture, and nested PCR.
What spp of mycobacterium was the cause of skin lesions in an Amazon and is the most pathogenic nontuberculous mycobacterium affecting humans?
Duvall, A., Greenacre, C., Grunkemeyer, V., & Craig, L. (2021). Cutaneous Mycobacteriosis Caused by Mycobacterium kansasii in a Yellow-naped Amazon Parrot (Amazona auropalliata). Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery, 35(2), 227-234.
Mycobacterium kansasii
