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A&P > PPT Notes Chapter 6 > Flashcards

PPT Notes Chapter 6 Flashcards

1
Q

Skeletal cartilages contain no __ or __

A

blood vessels or nerves (avascular)

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2
Q

Define: perichondrium

A

dense connective tissue girdle that contains blood vessels for nutrient delivery to cartilage

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3
Q

peri-

A

around

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4
Q

Chondr-

A

cartilage

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5
Q

Name the 3 types of skeletal cartilages

A
  • Hyaline -provide support, flexibility and resilience -most abundant
  • Elastic -similar to hyalin, but contains elastic fibers (pinna of ear)
  • Fibrocartilage -collagen fibers -> have great tensile strength (intervertebral disc)
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6
Q

2 types of cartilage growth

A
  1. Appositional -cells secrete matrix against the external face of existing cartilage
  2. Interstitial -chondrocytes divide and secrete new matrix, expanding cartilage from within
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7
Q

calcification of cartilage occurs during (2)

A
  1. -normal bone growth
  2. -old age
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8
Q

Name the two groups of skeleton

A
  1. -Axial
  2. -Appendicular
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9
Q

The appendicular skeleton is attached to the axial skeleton by which two girdles?

A
  1. -pectoral
  2. -pelvic
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10
Q

Define: Long bones

A

longer than they are wide

-Humerus, Femur, Tibia, Fibia, etc

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11
Q

Define: Short bones; two examples

A

wide as they are long

  1. -cube shaped bones in wrist and ankle
  2. -sesamoid bones (within tendons, eg patella)
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12
Q

Define: Flat bones

A

Thin, flat, slightly curved

-ribs, cranial bones

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13
Q

Define: Irregular bones

A

Complicated shapes

-sternum

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14
Q

Name the 6 functions of bones

A
  1. Support -for the body and soft organs
  2. Protection -for brain, spinal cord and vital organs
  3. Movemment -acts as levers for muscle action
  4. Storage -Minerals (calcium, phosphorus) and growth factors
  5. Blood cell formation-hematopoiesis in marrow cavities
  6. Triglyceride (energy/fat) storage in bone cavities
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15
Q

Define: Bone markings

A

Bulges, depressions and holes that serve as

  • -sites of attachment for muscles, ligaments and tendons
  • -joint surfaces
  • -conduits for blood vessels and nerves
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16
Q

Name the 8 bone marking projections that serve as sites of muscle and ligament attachment

A

PECSTTTL

  1. Process
  2. Epicondyle
  3. Crest
  4. Spine
  5. Tuberosity
  6. Trochanter
  7. Tubercle
  8. Line
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17
Q

Tuberosity

A

rounded projection eg tibial tuberosity

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18
Q

Crest

A

narrow, prominent ridge eg iliac crest

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19
Q

Trochanter

A

large, blunt, irregular surface eg greater and lesser trochanters of the femur

  • Trochanter is only found in the femur
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20
Q

Line

A

narrow ridge of bone eg intertrochanteric line similar to crest, but less prominent

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21
Q

Tubercle

A

small, rounded projection eg supraglenoid tubercle

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22
Q

Epicondyle

A

raised area above a condyle eg lateral epicondyle of humerus can be found any place where two bones touch

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23
Q

Spine

A

sharp, slender projection eg ischial spine

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24
Q

Process

A

any bony prominence eg spinous process

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25
Q

Name the 4 bone marking projections that help to form joints

A

HFCR

  1. Head
  2. Facet
  3. Condyle
  4. Ramus
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26
Q

Head

A

bony expansion carried on a narrow neck eg femoral head (ball carried on narrow neck)

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27
Q

Facet

A

Smooth, nearly flat articular surface eg superior articular facet of vertebrae

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28
Q

Condyle

A

Rounded articular projection eg lateral and medial condyle of the distal femur

  • condyle=knuckle
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29
Q

Ramus

A

armlike bar of bone eg ramus of the mandible

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30
Q

Name the 3 bone markings that are depressions and openings that serve for passage of blood vessels and nerves

A

GFF

  1. Groove
  2. Fissure
  3. Foramen
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31
Q

Groove

A

Furrow eg mandibular groove

32
Q

Fissure

A

Narrow, slit-like opening eg inferior orbital fissure of the eye socket

33
Q

Foramen

A

round or oval opening through a bone eg vertebral foramen

34
Q

Name the 3 other bone markings found on bones

A

MSF

  1. Meatus
  2. Sinus
  3. Fossa
35
Q

Meatus

A

Canal-like passageway eg meatus in skull

36
Q

Sinus

A

Cavity within a bone eg maxillary sinus

37
Q

Fossa

A

Shallow, basin-like depression eg glenoid fossa

  • Often serves as an articular surface
38
Q

Name the two types of bone textures

A
  1. Compact bone - dense outer layer
  2. Spongy (cancellous) bone - honeycomb of trabeculae
39
Q

What kind of bone is a diaphysis found in?

A

Long bone

40
Q

What is the diaphysis

A

shaft of a long bone; compact bone collar that surrounds the medullary cavity

41
Q

What does the medullary cavity in adults contain?

A

fat

42
Q

What kind of bone is an epiphyses found in?

A

Long bone

43
Q

Name the 4 characteristics of the epiphyses

A
  1. Expanded ends
  2. Spongy bone interior
  3. Epiphyseal line (remnant of growth plate)
  4. Articular (hyaline) cartilage on joint surfaces
44
Q

What are the two bone membranes?

A
  1. Periosteum
  2. Endosteum
45
Q

Sharpey’s fibers

A

Fiber that secures periosteum to underlying bone

46
Q

Name the 4 characteristics of the periosteum

A

Outer fibrous layer

Inner osteogenic layer

  • -osteoblasts (bone building cells)
  • -osteoclasts (bone killing cells)
  • -osteogenic cells (stem cells)

Nerve fibers, nutrient blood vessels and lymphatic vessels enter the bone via nutrient foramina

Secured to underlying bone by Sharpey’s fibers

47
Q

Name the 2 characteristics of the endosteum

A
  1. Delicate membrane on internal surfaces of bone
  2. Also contains osteoblasts/clasts
48
Q

Structure of Short, Irregular and Flat bones

A

Periosteum-covered compact bone on outside

Endosteum-covered spongy bone within

Spongy bone called diploe in flat bones

Bone marrow between the trabeculae

49
Q

Location of Hematopoeitic tissue in adults (red bone marrow)

A

Trabecular cavities of:

  1. the heads of the femur and humerus
  2. the diploe of flat bones
50
Q

Location of Hematopoeitic tissue of newborn infants (red marrow)

A

medullary cavities and all spaces in spongy bone

51
Q

Cells of bones

A

Osteogenic (osteoprogenitor) cells

  • Stem cells in periosteum and endosteum that give rise to osteoblasts

Osteoblasts

  • Bone-forming cells

Osteocytes

  • Mature bone cells

Osteoclasts

  • Cells that break down (resorb) bone matrix
52
Q

Anatomy of Compact bone

A

Haversian system, or osteon—structural unit

Lamellae

  • Weight-bearing
  • Column-like matrix tubes

Central (Haversian) canal

  • Contains blood vessels and nerves

Perforating (Volkmann’s) canals

At right angles to the central canal

Connects blood vessels and nerves of the periosteum and central canal

Lacunae—small cavities that contain osteocytes

Canaliculi—hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal (cracks)

53
Q

Anatomy of spongy bone

A

Trabeculae

  1. Align along lines of stress
  2. No osteons
  3. Contain irregularly arranged lamellae, osteocytes, and canaliculi
  4. Capillaries in endosteum supply nutrients
54
Q

Chemical Composition of Bone: Organic

A

Osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts

Osteoid—organic bone matrix secreted by osteoblasts

  • Ground substance (proteoglycans, glycoproteins)
  • Collagen fibers
  • Provide tensile strength and flexibility
55
Q

Chemical Composition of Bone: Inorganic

A

Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts)

  1. 65% of bone by mass
  2. Mainly calcium phosphate crystals
  3. Responsible for hardness and resistance to compression
56
Q

Bone Development

A

Osteogenesis (ossification)—bone tissue formation

Stages

  1. Bone formation—begins in the 2nd month of development
  2. Postnatal bone growth—until early adulthood
  3. Bone remodeling and repair—lifelong
57
Q

Two Types of Ossification

A

Intramembranous ossification

  • Membrane bone develops from fibrous membrane
  • Forms flat bones, e.g. clavicles and cranial bones

Endochondral ossification

  • Cartilage (endochondral) bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage
  • Forms most of the rest of the skeleton
58
Q

Endochondral Ossification

A

Uses hyaline cartilage models

Requires breakdown of hyaline cartilage prior to ossification

59
Q

Postnatal Bone Growth

A

Interstitial growth: increase length of long bones

Appositional growth: increase thickness and remodeling of all bones by osteoblasts and osteoclasts on bone surfaces

60
Q

Growth in Length of Long Bones

A

Epiphyseal plate cartilage organizes into four important functional zones:

  1. Proliferation (growth)
  2. Hypertrophic
  3. Calcification
  4. Ossification (osteogenic)
61
Q

Hormonal Regulation of Bone Growth

A

Growth hormone stimulates epiphyseal plate activity

Thyroid hormone modulates activity of growth hormone

Testosterone and estrogens (at puberty)

  • Promote adolescent growth spurts
  • End growth by inducing epiphyseal plate closure
62
Q

Bone Deposit

A
  • Occurs where bone is injured or added strength is needed
  • Requires a diet rich in protein; vitamins C, D, and A; calcium; phosphorus; magnesium; and manganese

Sites of new matrix deposit are revealed by the:

Osteoid seam

Unmineralized band of matrix

Calcification front

The abrupt transition zone between the osteoid seam and the older mineralized bone

63
Q

Bone Resorption

A

Osteoclasts secrete

  • Lysosomal enzymes (digest organic matrix)
  • Acids (convert calcium salts into soluble forms)

Dissolved matrix is transcytosed across osteoclast, enters interstitial fluid and then blood

64
Q

What 2 things control the continual remodeling of bone?

A
  1. Hormonal mechanisms that maintain calcium homeostasis in the blood
  2. Mechanical and gravitational forces
65
Q

Hormonal Control of Blood Ca2+

A

Calcium is necessary for:

  1. Transmission of nerve impulses
  2. Muscle contraction
  3. Blood coagulation
  4. Secretion by glands and nerve cells
  5. Cell division

Primarily controlled by parathyroid hormone (PTH) ->Paul Revere that rounds up osteoclasts

Decrease in Blood Ca2+ levels leads to:

  1. Parathyroid glands release PTH
  2. PTH stimulates osteoclasts to degrade bone matrix and release Ca2+
  3. RESULT: Increase Blood Ca2+ levels

May be affected to a lesser extent by calcitonin (Tone down calcium levels)

Increase in Blood Ca2+ levels leads to:

  1. Parafollicular cells of thyroid release calcitonin
  2. Osteoblasts deposit calcium salts
  3. Decrease Blood Ca2+ levels
  • Leptin has also been shown to influence bone density by inhibiting osteoblasts
66
Q

Response to Mechanical Stress (The Grey)

A

Wolff’s law: A bone grows or remodels in response to forces or demands placed upon it

Observations supporting Wolff’s law:

  1. Handedness (right or left handed) results in bone of one upper limb being thicker and stronger
  2. Curved bones are thickest where they are most likely to buckle
  3. Trabeculae form along lines of stress
  4. Large, bony projections occur where heavy, active muscles attach
67
Q

4 either/or Classifications of Bone Fractures

A

Bone fractures may be classified by four “either/or” classifications:

1) Position of bone ends after fracture:

  • Nondisplaced—ends retain normal position
  • Displaced—ends out of normal alignment

2) Completeness of the break

  • Complete—broken all the way through
  • Incomplete—not broken all the way through

3) Orientation of the break to the long axis of the bone:

  • Linear—parallel to long axis of the bone
  • Transverse—perpendicular to long axis of the bone

4) Whether or not the bone ends penetrate the skin:

  • Compound (open)—bone ends penetrate the skin
  • Simple (closed)—bone ends do not penetrate the skin
68
Q

Common Types of Fractures

A

All fractures can be described in terms of:

  1. Location
  2. External appearance
  3. Nature of the break
69
Q

Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture

A

1) Hematoma forms

  • Torn blood vessels hemorrhage
  • Clot (hematoma) forms
  • Site becomes swollen, painful, and inflamed

2) Fibrocartilaginous callus forms

  • Phagocytic cells clear debris
  • Osteoblasts begin forming spongy bone within 1 week
  • Fibroblasts secrete collagen fibers to connect bone ends
  • Mass of repair tissue now called fibrocartilaginous callus

3) Bony callus formation

  • New trabeculae form a bony (hard) callus
  • Bony callus formation continues until firm union is formed in ~2 months

4) Bone remodeling

  • In response to mechanical stressors over several months
  • Final structure resembles original
70
Q

Homeostatic Imbalances

A

Osteomalacia and rickets

  • Calcium salts not deposited
  • Rickets (childhood disease) causes bowed legs and other bone deformities
    • Cause: vitamin D deficiency or insufficient dietary calcium

Osteoporosis (Holey bone disease)

  • Loss of bone mass—bone resorption outpaces deposit
  • Spongy bone of spine and neck of femur become most susceptible to fracture

Risk factors

  • Lack of estrogen, calcium or vitamin D; petite body form; immobility; low levels of TSH; diabetes mellitus
71
Q

Osteoporosis: Treatment and Prevention

A
  • Calcium, vitamin D, and fluoride supplements
  • Increase Weight-bearing exercise throughout life
  • Hormone (estrogen) replacement therapy (HRT) slows bone loss
  • Some drugs (Fosamax, SERMs, statins) increase bone mineral density
72
Q

Paget’s Disease

A

Excessive and haphazard bone formation and breakdown, usually in:

  • spine, pelvis, femur, or skull

Pagetic bone has very high ratio of spongy to compact bone and reduced mineralization

  • Unknown cause (possibly viral)
  • Treatment includes calcitonin and biphosphonates
73
Q

The Axial Skeleton

A
  • Consists of 80 bones

Three major regions:

  1. Skull
  2. Vertebral column
  3. Thoracic cage
74
Q

Appendicular Skeleton

A

Bones of the limbs and their girdles

  • Pectoral girdle attaches the upper limbs to the body trunk
  • Pelvic girdle secures the lower limbs
75
Q

Pectoral Girdle (Shoulder Girdle)

A

Clavicles and the scapulae

  • Attach the upper limbs to the axial skeleton
  • Provide attachment sites for muscles that move the upper limbs
76
Q

Pelvic (Hip) Girdle

A

Two hip bones (each also called coxal bone or os coxae)

  • Attach the lower limbs to the axial skeleton with strong ligaments
  • Transmit weight of upper body to lower limbs
  • Support pelvic organs

Each hip bone consists of three fused bones:

  1. ilium
  2. ischium
  3. pubis

Together with the sacrum and the coccyx, these bones form the bony pelvis

A&P (16 decks)

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