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A&P > PPT Notes: Chapter 2 > Flashcards

PPT Notes: Chapter 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Matter

A

Anything that has mass and occupies space

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2
Q

States of matter

A
  • Solid - definite shape and volume
  • Liquid - definite volume, changeable shape
  • Gas - changeable shape and volume
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3
Q

Energy

A

Capacity to to do work or put matter into motion

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4
Q

Types of energy

A
  • Kinetic - energy in action
  • Potential - stored (inactive) energy
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5
Q

Forms of energy

A

CREM

  • Chemical - stored in bonds of chemical substances
  • Radiant or electromagnetic - exhibits wavelike properties (i.e. visible light, ultraviolet light and x-rays)
  • Electrical - results from movement of charged particles
  • Mechanical - directly involved in moving matter
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6
Q

Energy form conversions

A
  • Energy may be converted from one form to another
  • Conversion is inefficient because some energy is lost as heat
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7
Q

Elements

A
  • Cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical means
  • Each has unique:
    • Physical properties
      • Are detectable with our senses or are measurable
    • Chemical properties
      • How atoms interact (bond) with one another
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8
Q

Atoms

A

Unique building blocks for each element

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9
Q

Atomic symbol

A

one or two letter chemical shorthand for each element

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10
Q

Major elements of the human body

A

OCHN

  • Oxygen
  • Carbon
  • Hydrogen
  • Nitrogen

96% of human body has these elements

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11
Q

Lesser elements of the human body

A
  • Calcium - Ca
  • Phosphorus - P
  • Potassium - K
  • Sulfur - S
  • Sodium - Na
  • Chlorine - Cl
  • Magnesium - Mg
  • Iodine - I
  • Iron - Fe

3.9% of body mass

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12
Q

Trace elements of the human body

A

Part of enzymes, e.g.:

  • Chromium - Cr
  • Manganese - Mn
  • Zinc - Zn

<0.01% of body mass

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13
Q

Atomic structure is determined by

A

3 subatomic particles

  • neutrons and protons in the nucleus
  • electrons surrounding the nucleus
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14
Q

neutrons

A
  • no charge
  • mass = 1 atomic mass unit
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15
Q

Protons

A
  • positive charge
  • mass = 1 amu
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16
Q

electrons

A
  • orbit nucleus
  • equal in number to protons in atom
  • negative charge
  • 1/2000 the mass of a proton (0 amu)
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17
Q

Orbital model of the atom

A
  • current model used by chemists
  • depicts probable regions of greatest electron density (electron cloud)
  • useful for predicting chemical behavior of atoms
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18
Q

Planetary model of the atom

A
  • oversimplified, outdated model of the atom
  • incorrectly depicts fixed circular electron paths
  • useful for illustrations
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19
Q

An element is…

A

atoms of one type e.g. gold atoms make up gold

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20
Q

atoms of different elements contain…

A

contain different numbers of subatomic particles

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21
Q

the atomic number is equal to

A

the number of protons in the nucleus

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22
Q

the mass number is equal to

A

the mass of the protons and neutrons

  • mass numbers of atoms of an element are not all identical
    • isotopes are structural variations of elements that differ in number of electrons they contain
      • Hydrogen: 1 proton, 0 neutron = 1 amu
      • Hydrogen isotope: 1 proton, 1 neutron = 2 amu
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23
Q

Atomic weight is equal to

A

the average of mass numbers of all isotopes

  • listed on the periodic table of elements
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24
Q

Radioisotopes

A
  • heavy isotopes
  • prone to spontaneous decay (radioactivity) because they are unstable
  • similar chemistry (bonding properties) to stable isotopes
  • can be detected with scanners (CT scan, PET scan)
  • valuable tools for biological research and medicine
  • causes damage to living tissue
    • against localized cancers as radiation therapy
    • radon from uranium decay causes lung cancer
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25
Q

Molecules and compounds

A

most atoms combine chemically by bonding with other atoms to form molecules and compounds

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26
Q

Molecule

A

any two or more atoms bonded together

  • e.g. H2 or C6H12O6
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27
Q

A Compound is

A

two or more different kinds of atoms bonded together

  • e.g. C6H12O6
  • can be chemically bonded
  • all are homogeneous
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28
Q

Mixtures

A
  • Most matter exists as mixtures
    • two or more components physically intermixed
  • no chemical bonding between components
  • can be separated physically by straining or filtering
  • heterogeneous (varied makeup) or homogeneous (pure makeup)
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29
Q

Types of mixtures

A

3 types

  • solutions
  • colloids
  • suspensions
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30
Q

Solutions

A
  • homogeneous mixtures
  • usually transparent (e.g. atmospheric air or seawater)
    • solvent
      • present in greatest amount, usually a liquid
    • solute
      • present in smaller amounts
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31
Q

Concentration of solutions are expressed as…

A

Expressed as:

  • percent, or parts per 100
  • Milligrams per deciliter (mg/dl)
  • Molarity, or moles per liter (M)
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32
Q

moles

A
  • 1 mole = the atomic weight of an element or molecular weight (sum of atomic weights) of a compound in grams
  • 1 mole of anysubstance contains 6.02 x 1023 molecules (Avogadro’s number)
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33
Q

Avogadro’s number

A

6.02 x 1023

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34
Q

Colloids (aka emulsions)

A
  • eg Mayo
  • heterogeneous translucent mixtures eg cytosol
  • large solute molecules that do not settle out
  • undergo sol-gel transformations
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35
Q

Suspensions

A
  • heterogeneous mixtures eg blood
  • large visible solutes tend to settle out
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36
Q

Electrons occupy up to…

A

seven electron shells (energy levels) around nucleus.

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37
Q

Octet rule

A

Except for the first shell which is full with two electrons, (duet rule) atoms interact in a manner to have eight electrons in their outermost energy level (valence shell)

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38
Q

Chemically inert elements

A
  • stable and unreactive
  • outermost energy level fully occupied or contains eight electrons
  • Noble Gases
39
Q

Chemically reactive elements

A
  • outermost energy level not fully occupied by electrons
  • tend to gain, lose or share electrons (form bonds) with other atoms to achieve stability
40
Q

Types of chemical bonds

A
  • Ionic
  • Covalent
  • Hydrogen
41
Q

Ionic bonds

A
  • Ions are formed by transfer of valence shell electrons between atoms
    • anions - (– charge) have gained one or more electrons
    • cations - (+ charge) have lost one or more electrons
  • Attraction of opposite charges results in an ionic bond
42
Q

Formation of ionic bond (What kind of structure does it form)

A
  • Ionic compounds form crystals instead of individual molecules
    • NaCl (sodium chloride)
43
Q

Covalent bonds

A
  • Formed by sharing of two or more valence shell electrons
  • Allows each atom to fill its valence shell at least part of the time
  • Sharing of electrons may be equal or unequal
    • sharing produces electrically balanced nonpolar molecules eg CO2
  • unequal sharing by atoms with different electron-attracting abilities produces polar molecules eg H20
    • Atoms with six or seven valence shell electrons are electronegative, e.g., oxygen
    • Atoms with one or two valence shell electrons are electropositive, e.g., sodium
44
Q

Hydrogen bonds

A
  • Attractive force between electropositive hydrogen of one molecule and an electronegative atom of another molecule
    • Common between dipoles such as water
    • Also act as intramolecular bonds, holding a large molecule in a three-dimensional shape
45
Q

Chemical reactions occur when… are represented as…

A
  • Occur when chemical bonds are formed, rearranged, or broken
  • Represented as chemical equations
  • Chemical equations contain:
    • Molecular formula for each reactant yields product
    • Relative amounts of reactants and products, which should balance

eg

  • H+H —>H2 (hydrogen gas)
  • 4H+C —> CH4 (methane)
46
Q

3 patterns of chemical reactions

A
  • Synthesis (combination) reactions
  • Decomposition reactions
  • Exchange reactions
47
Q

Synthesis reactions

A

A + B —> AB

  • Always involve bond formation
  • Anabolic (building)
48
Q

Decomposition reactions

A

AB —> A+B

  • Reverse synthesis reactions
  • Involve breaking of bonds
  • Catabolic
49
Q

Exchange reactions

A

AB+C —> AC+B

  • also called displacement reactions
  • bonds are both made and broken
50
Q

Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) reactions

A
  • Decomposition reactions: Reactions in which fuel is broken down for energy
  • Also called exchange reactions because electrons are exchanged or shared differently
    • electron donors lose electrons and are oxidized
    • electron acceptors receive electrons and become reduced
51
Q

Chemical reactions are either…

A
  • All chemical reactions are either endergonic or exergonic
  • Exergonic reactions— release energy
    • catabolic reactions
  • Endergonic reactions—products contains more potential energy than did reactants
    • anabolic reactions
  • All chemical reactions are theoretically reversible
    • A + B —> AB
    • AB —> A + B
  • Chemical equilibrium occurs if neither a forward nor reverse reaction is dominant
  • Many biological reactions are essentially irreversible due to:
    • Energy requirements
    • Removal of products
52
Q

Rate of chemical reactions are influenced by…

A

Influenced by:

  • increased temperature = increased rate
  • decreased particle size = increased rate
  • increased concentration of reactant = increased rate

Catalysts

  • increase rate without being chemically changed
  • biological catalysts are known as enzymes
53
Q

Classes of compounds

A

Inorganic

  • water, salts, and many acids and bases
  • do not contain carbon

*carbon dioxide and monoxide are both inorganic

Organic

  • carbohydrates, fats, proteins and nucleic acids
  • contain carbon, usually large and are covalently bonded
54
Q

Water

A
  • 60-80% of the volume of living cells
  • most important inorganic compound in living organisms because of its properties
    • high heat capacity
      • absorbs and releases heat with little temperature change
      • prevents sudden changes in temperature
    • high heat of vaporization
      • evaporation requires large amounts of heat
      • useful cooling mechanism
    • polar solvent properties
      • dissolves and dissociates ionic substances
      • forms hydration layers around large charged molecules e.g. proteins (colloid formation)
      • Body’s major transport medium
    • reactivity
      • a necessary part of hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis reactions
        *
55
Q

Salts

A
  • ionic compounds that dissociate in water
  • contain cations other than H+ and anions other than OH-
  • Ions (electrolytes) conduct electrical currents in solution
  • Ions play specialized roles in body functions (eg sodium, potassium, calcium and iron)
56
Q

Acids and bases

A

both are electrolytes

  • acids are proton (hydrogen ion) donors (release H+ in solution)
    • HCl —> H+ + Cl-
  • bases are proton acceptors (take up H+ from solution)
    • NaOH —> Na+ + OH-
      • OH- accepts an available proton (H+)
      • OH- + H+ —> H2O
  • *Hydrogen* Bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) and ammonia (NH3) are important bases in the body
57
Q

Acid solutions contain….

A

H+

  • H+ increases, acidity increases
58
Q

Alkaline solutions contain…

A

bases (eg OH-)

  • as H+ decreases (or as OH- increases), alkalinity increases
59
Q

pH

A

the negative logarithm of H+ in moles per liter

60
Q

pH neutral solutions

A
  • pure water is pH neutral (contains equal numbers of H+ and OH-)
  • pH of pure water = pH 7: H+ = 10-7 M
  • all neutral solutions are pH 7
61
Q

pH acidic solutions

A
  • increased H+ , decreased pH (inversely proportionate)
  • acidic pH: 0-6.99
  • pH scale scale is logarithmic: a pH 5 solution has 10 times more H+ than a pH 6 solution
62
Q

pH alkaline solutions

A
  • decreased H+, increased pH (inversely proportionate)
  • alkaline (basic) pH: 7.01 - 14
63
Q

pH change interferes with…

A

function and may damage living tissue

  • slight change in pH can be fatal
  • pH is regulated by kidneys, lungs and buffers
64
Q

Buffers

A
  • mixture of compounds that resist pH changes
  • convert strong (completely dissociated) acids or bases into weak (slightly dissociated) ones
  • carbonic acid-bicarbonate system
65
Q

Organic compounds

A
  • contain carbon (except CO2 and CO which are inorganic)
  • unique to living systems
  • include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids
  • many are polymers - chains of similar units (monomers or building blocks)
    • synthesized by dehydration synthesis, which is the removal of water
    • broken down by hydrolysis reactions
66
Q

-lysis

A

to break

67
Q

Hydro-

A

water

68
Q

Carbohydrates

A
  • sugars and starches
  • contain C, H and O (CH2O)n
  • Three classes
    • monosaccharides
    • disaccharides
    • polysaccharides
  • functions
    • major source of cellular fuel (eg glucose)
    • structural molecules (eg ribose sugar in RNA)
69
Q

-saccharides

A

sugars

70
Q

Monosaccharides

A
  • simple sugars containing three to seven C atoms
  • (CH2O)n
71
Q

Disaccharides

A
  • double sugars
  • too large to pass through cell membranes
72
Q

Polysaccharides

A
  • polymers of simple sugars eg starch and glycogen
  • not very soluble
73
Q

Lipids contain what elements? Solubility in water?

A
  • Contain C, H, O (less in carbohydrates) and sometimes P
  • Insoluble in water
74
Q

Main types of lipids

A

PENTS

  • neutral fats or triglycerides
  • phospholipids
  • steroids
  • eicosanoids
75
Q

Triglycerides

A
  • neutral fats - solid fats and liquid oils
    • found in butter, meats, etc
  • composed of three fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule
  • main functions
    • energy storage
    • insulation
    • protection
76
Q

Saturated fatty acids

A
  • single bonds between C atoms; maximum number of H
  • solid animal fats e.g. butter
77
Q

Unsaturated fatty acids

A
  • one or more double bonds between C atoms
  • reduced number of H atoms
  • plant oils, e.g. olive oil
78
Q

Phospholipids are modified…

A
  • Modified triglycerides:
    • glycerol + two fatty acids and a phosphorus (P)-containing group
  • head and tail regions have different properties
  • important in cell membrane structure
79
Q

Steroids

A

interlocking four-ring structure

Examples:

  • cholesterol
  • vitamin D
  • steroid hormones
  • bile salts
80
Q

Eicosanoids (name the two groups and what they are involved in)

A

come in two broad groups:

  • leukotrienes
  • prostanoids

both of which are involved in signaling between cells

81
Q

Other lipids in the body

A

other fat-soluble vitamins

  • Vitamins A, E, K

Lipoproteins

  • transport fats in the blood
82
Q

Proteins

A

polymers of amino acids (20 types)

  • joined by peptide bonds

Contain C, H, O, N and sometimes S and P

*NCHOPS

83
Q

Fibrous Proteins

A

Fibrous (structural) proteins

  • Strandlike, water insoluble, and stable

Examples:

  • keratin
  • Elastin
  • Collagen
  • certain contractile fibers
84
Q

Globular proteins

A

Globular (functional) proteins

  • Compact, spherical, water-soluble and sensitive to environmental changes
  • Specific functional regions (active sites)

Examples:

HAME

  • antibodies
  • hormones
  • molecular chaperones
  • enzymes
85
Q

Protein denaturation

A
  • Shape change and disruption of active sites due to environmental changes (e.g., decreased pH or increased temperature)
  • Reversible in most cases, if normal conditions are restored
  • Irreversible if extreme changes damage the structure beyond repair (e.g., cooking an egg)
86
Q

Molecular chaperones (chaperonins)

A

serve as the rescue team

  • Ensure quick and accurate folding and association of proteins
  • Assist translocation of proteins and ions across membranes
  • Promote breakdown of damaged or denatured proteins
  • Help trigger the immune response
  • Produced in response to stressful stimuli, e.g., O2 deprivation
87
Q

Enzymes

A

Biological catalysts

  • lowers the activation energy, increases the speed of a reaction (millions of reactions per minute)
  • often named for the reaction they catalyze; usually end in ase (e.g. hydrolases, oxidases)
    • examples include:
      • hydrolases that add water
      • Oxidases that add oxygen
      • Not all end in -ase (e.g. pepsin, gastrin, etc)
88
Q

Summary of enzyme action

A
  • Binding of enzyme’s active site to the substrate(s).
  • Formation of the enzyme substrate complex.
  • Release of the products from the enzyme.
89
Q

Nucleic acids

A

DNA and RNA

  • Largest molecules in the body
  • Contain C, O, H, N, and P
  • Building block = nucleotide, composed of N-containing base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group
90
Q

DNA

A
  • Four bases:
    • adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T)
  • double stranded helical molecule in the cell nucleus
  • Provides instructions for protein synthesis during normal cell functioning.
  • Replicates before cell division, ensuring genetic continuity during cellular reproduction.
91
Q

RNA

A
  • Four bases:
    • adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil (U)
  • single stranded molecule mostly active outside the nucleus
  • Three varieties of RNA carry out the DNA orders for protein synthesis [there are others]
    • messenger RNA [mRNA]
    • transfer RNA [tRNA]
    • ribosomal RNA [rRNA]
92
Q

ATP: Adenosine triphosphate

A
  • Adenine-containing RNA nucleotide with two additional phosphate groups
    • Adenine-Phosphate-Phosphate-Phosphate
      • Has the highest potential energy
  • Adenine-Phosphate-Phosphate
    • ADP : adenosine diphosphate
  • Adenine-Phosphate
    • AMP : adenosine monophosphate
93
Q

Function of ATP

A

Phosphorylation:

  • Terminal phosphates are enzymatically transferred to and energize other molecules
  • Breaking the bonds between phosphates releases the potential enregy.
  • Such “primed” molecules perform cellular work (life processes) using the phosphate bond energy

A&P (16 decks)

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