Power, M. & Dalgleish, T. (2015). Chapter 4 - Cognitive theories of emotional disorder. In Cognition and emotion: from order to disorder.

Question 1

experiment van Seligman:

Answer 1

Experimental Setup: Dogs were placed individually in harnesses. Initially, the dogs were divided into three groups: a control group, a group subjected to escapable shocks, and a group subjected to inescapable shocks.

Escapable vs. Inescapable Shocks: In the group subjected to escapable shocks, dogs were given a warning signal (such as a sound or light) before receiving a mild electric shock. They could then learn to escape the shock by jumping over a barrier. In contrast, in the group subjected to inescapable shocks, dogs received the same shocks but had no means of escaping or avoiding them, regardless of their behavior.

Testing Phase: After this initial phase, all dogs were placed in a shuttle box—a two-compartment chamber divided by a barrier. The dogs could easily jump over the barrier to the other compartment to avoid receiving a shock if they learned that behavior.

Observations: Dogs from the control and escapable shock groups quickly learned to jump over the barrier to avoid shocks when they heard the warning signal. However, dogs from the inescapable shock group showed a different response. They initially made no attempt to escape the shock, even when there was an opportunity to do so. They seemed to have learned that their actions had no effect on the outcome of the situation.

Question 2

hoe relate hij dit weer naar mensen

Answer 2

This behavior demonstrated what Seligman termed “learned helplessness”—a psychological condition where an individual learns to feel helpless and unable to control or influence adverse situations, even when escape or avoidance is possible.

Question 3

en nu het experiment in het kort

Answer 3

In het learned helplessness-experiment van Seligman werden honden verdeeld in groepen die elektrische schokken kregen. Sommige honden konden de schokken vermijden door over een obstakel te springen na een waarschuwingssignaal, terwijl andere honden de schokken niet konden vermijden. De honden die geen controle hadden over het vermijden van de schokken vertoonden later in een andere situatie een hulpeloze reactie, zelfs wanneer ontsnappen mogelijk was. Dit toonde aan dat ze ‘learned helplessness’ hadden ontwikkeld, waarbij ze geloofden dat hun acties geen invloed hadden op het resultaat van een situatie.

Question 4

hoe werd toen de learned helplessness theory opgezet

Answer 4

door dat experiment + attribution theory

Question 5

wat is het idee van hoe het process gaat (deel onder conditions)

Answer 5

bad event + perceived uncontrollability -> helplessness -> explanatory style

Question 6

waar bestaat de explanatory style uit

Answer 6

1) internal-external / locus
2) stable-unstable
3) global-specific

Question 7

the net combination of these three dimensions led to the proposal that the emotional, motivational and cognitive deficits seen in depresion could be accounted for by a certain set of attributions following the occurerrence of a negative event.

Answer 7

oke

Question 8

welke stijl zou een vulnerability factor zijn?

Answer 8

internal-stable-global attribution style for the causes of negative events and external unstable-specific attributions (e.g. “due to luck”) for positive events.

Question 9

outcomes = (bovenste gedeelte figuur)

Answer 9

• negative affect (emotional defict)
• expectation of future uncontrollability (cognitive defect)
• passivity (motivational deficit)

Question 10

outcome van internal locus

Answer 10

personal helplessness (low self-esteem)

Question 11

waarom ga je van een internal locus naar personal helplessness en low self esteem

Answer 11

an internal attribution for a negative event was seen to lead to low self-esteem, especially if, by social comparison, other individuals were perceived not to be helpless in such a situation (so-called “personal helplessness”)

dus als je denkt dat jij zelf alles opfockt -> en jij alleen daarin bent -> personal helplessness -> lower self-esteem

Question 12

outcome van external locus

Answer 12

universal helplessness (self-esteem remains the same)

Question 13

outcome van stable

Answer 13

increased chronicity of deficits (alles blijft voor altijd kut)

Question 14

outcome van global

Answer 14

increased generality of deficits (alles is kut)

Question 15

wat was de contradiction van de learned helplessness theory

Answer 15

depressed individuals would blame themselves for events. but the learned helplessness theory stated that they would perceive these as controllable

Question 16

wat werd er gedaan om deze contradictie op te lossen

Answer 16

hopelessness theory replaced it, focused only on the occurrence of negative events (not uncontrollable events or perceived uncontrollability)

Question 17

the main outcome of hopelessness theory=

Answer 17

hopelessness, placing the emphasis on perceived negativity

Question 18

wat is dan het model van hopelessness theory

Answer 18

bad event -> explanatory style -> hopelessness

Question 19

even kijken in document naar modellen

Answer 19

okeeee echt doen

Question 20

waar leidt internal + stable + global naar in hopelessness theory

Answer 20

low self-esteem

Question 21

waar leidt stable + global naar in hopelessness theory

Answer 21

increased chronicity & generality of deficits

Question 22

waar leidt hopelessness naar toe

Answer 22

• expectation of future uncontrollability (cognitive deficit)
• passivity (motivational deficit)

Question 23

two main components of Beck’s cognitive therapy

Answer 23

• the types of cognitive structures that underlie emotional disorders
• the types of cognitive processes that are involved in the onset and maintenance of the disorders

Question 24

cognitive therapy focuses on..

Answer 24

schemas & cognitive processes

Question 25

schemas=

Answer 25

units by which memory, thinking and perception are organized. schemas are partly derived from one’s past experience but are not seen to be passive representations of these experiences. activation of part of the schema leads to activation of the whole schema: meaning that information that is not represented in the input will be filled in according to the operative “default” values.

Question 26

wat zei beck over schemas

Answer 26

dat certain groups of dysfunctional schemas are likley to be characteristics of emotional disorders.

Question 27

wat zei beck over de periode in between episodes of emotional disorders

Answer 27

the dysfunctional schemas are inactive and lie dormant. but they become active when the appropriate matching stressors occur.

Question 28

wat voor uitleg is er voor dat deze schemas opeens actief worden

Answer 28

they remain active but during recovery the individual is able to inhibit the outcomes of such processing, if it is negative. or if the outcome is positive then these are consciously acceptable to the individual.

Question 29

wat voor cognitieve processen gaat het om in cognitive therapy

Answer 29

when the dysfunctional schemas are activated they produce automatic negative thoughts. people can suppress these thoughts, but depression-prone individuals seek further evidence in support the negative thoughts and beliefs.

Question 30

wat voor soort evidence seeking mechanisms hebben mensen (ook wel logical distortions)

Answer 30

• magnification (of negative material related to the self)
• minimization (of positive material related to the self)
• personalization (taking the blame for anything negative)

Question 31

wat zijn twee punten die belangrijk zijn aan deze view of cognitive processes

Answer 31

• the approach implies that normal thinking is rational (which it is not)
• the approach presents a view of the self-concept in depression that is monlithic and negative, and a view of the self-concept in normal individuals that is monolithic and positive

Question 32

monolythic =

Answer 32

(of an organization or system) large, powerful, indivisible, and slow to change.

Question 33

Williams, Watts, MacLeod and Mathews: wat was hun main point

Answer 33

the distinction between priming and elaboration

Question 34

priming =

Answer 34

an automatic stage of processing in which the stimulus may be linked with its representation in long-term memory

Question 35

elaboration =

Answer 35

subsequent strategic or resource demanding processes

Elaboration verwijst naar het proces waarbij mensen nieuwe informatie begrijpen en onthouden door deze te koppelen aan bestaande kennis of ervaringen.

Question 36

wat zeiden ze over priming & elaboration in anxiety

Williams, Watts, MacLeod and Mathews

Answer 36

automatic priming processes are biased towards the detection of anxiety-relevant stimuli or situations.

however, although initial priming or automatic processes are biased towards the detection of threat in anxiety, subsequent elaborative processes are biased away from the processing of threat.

dus meer threat detection, minder threat elaboration nadat het is gedetect

Question 37

wat zeiden ze over priming & elaboration in depressie

Williams, Watts, MacLeod and Mathews

Answer 37

the main cognitive biases evident in depression are resource-demanding elaborative ones, that are most apparent in mnemonic tasks.

dus in depression is de bias bij priming niet perse aangetast, maar het gaat hier meer om dat er heel veel resource demaning elaborative processes biased zijn.

Question 38

strengths of Williams, Watts, MacLeod and Mathews theory

Answer 38

it provided a focus for the dissatisfacton felt by many researchers with the predictions for global cognitive biases that emerged from the theories of Beck and Bower