Personality Flashcards
1
Q
What does Hollander define personality as?
A
The sum of the individuals characteristics that make him unique
2
Q
What does Eysenck suggest our personality is made up of?
A
A series of traits
3
Q
What is a trait?
A
An underlying, enduring predisposition to behave in a certain way every time a situation occurs/ pre-determined rather than learned
4
Q
Where does Eysenck state traits come from?
A
Traits inherited from parents
5
Q
Give three examples of traits
A
- Shyness
- Sensitivity
- Motivation
6
Q
What does Eysenck state that traits enable you to predict?
A
Allows behaviour to be predicted
7
Q
What does Eysenck theory not take into consideration?
A
It doesn’t take into account the influence of the environment or significant others
8
Q
What is the EPI?
A
Eysenck personality inventory
9
Q
What are the two trait dimensions in Eysenck theory?
A
Extroversion- introversion and neurotic- stable
10
Q
What is personality?
A
It is the psychological characteristics that make a person unique and account for regular patterns of behaviour
E.g. shy, outgoing, boisterous, aggressive, temperamental, moody, sensitive, humorous, lively and dull
11
Q
How does personality develop?
A
-There is a ‘nature versus nurture’ debate
- centres whether traits are learnt and acquired from our environment (nurture) or whether they are inherited from our parents (nature)
12
Q
What does trait theory suggest?
A
- it suggests that an individuals personality is inherited from their parents (traits are innate characteristics that were born with)
- they remain stable through our lifetime
- traits are stable and enduring
- behaviour can be predicted because they predispose an individual to act in a certain way regardless of the situation
- consistent in all situations
13
Q
What does innate mean?
A
It means you genetically inherited or were born with something
- (nature side of the nature vs nurture debate)
14
Q
Eysenck trait theory
A
- in the 1950s he proposed a model with two dimensions that encompasses a number of personality traits
- he developed a questionnaire sometimes called an inventory that could be used to work out an individuals personality and this could be used to predict behaviour
- his model contains two continuums; on one continuum at opposing ends are stable and neurotic
- on the other continuum the two opposing traits are introversion and extroversion
- Eysenck added a third dimension to his model which he termed psychoticism (this dimension reflected how mentally tough and resilient people are)
15
Q
What is a trait?
A
Psychological disposition or characteristic that consistently impacts on behaviours, thoughts and emotions
- behaviours are determined by relatively stable traits
- (they are innate characteristics that were born with)
16
Q
Cartels EPQ
A
- Cattell disagreed with Eynsenck
- he believed that personality was composed of 16 traits not just 3
- he developed a questionnaire like eynsenck that could be used to evaluate an individuals personality
- questionnaire contained 160 questions (10 for each of the traits)
17
Q
Introvert
A
- passive
- careful
- thoughtful
- calm
- controlled
18
Q
Extrovert
A
- talkative
- lively
- carefree
- leadership
- outgoing
19
Q
Introvert
A
- does not seek out excitement, prefers calm and quiet situations
- dislikes the unexpected and prefers order
- good at tasks requiring concentration
20
Q
Extrovert
A
- becomes bored more quickly
- seeks change and excitement
- poor at tasks requiring concentration
21
Q
What does the biological perspective of trait theory suggest?
A
That personality is influenced by the reticular activating system (RAS) and the autonomic nervous system (ANS)
22
Q
What is the reticular activating system (RAS)?
A
- It is part of the brain that influences the introvert-extrovert dimension
- it interprets information that comes into the brain from the senses and controls our alertness and state of arousal
- it is believed that in introverts the RAS is already stimulated so even minor changes in the environment will lead to over-arousal
- in extroverts, the RAS operates at a lower level so much more stimulation is needed to experience excitement and arousal
- this means extroverts seek our stimulating environments (e.g. performing in front of a crowd)
23
Q
What does the autonomic nervous system influence?
A
- the stable-neurotic dimension
- impedes information for stable individuals and causes a delayed response to situations, giving the impression of a laid back personality
- ANS speeds up incoming information for neurotic individuals and causes a rapid response to situations, giving the impression of restlessness
24
Q
Narrow band approach ( type A and type B personality types)
A
- (1950s) cardiologists Meyer Friedman and mike Jordan tried to investigate risk factors from our personality that could impact on heart health
- those classed as type A were: impatient, controlling, ambitious, competitive and aggressive
- these individuals were often ‘workaholics’ and ‘stress junkies’ and their lifestyle predisposed them to having a much higher risk of developing heart disease
- in sport settings, it is suggested that type A personalities experience higher levels of stress and are more likely to persist with a sporting situation once it becomes less favourable
Major criticism- behaviour isn’t always consistent
25
Positives of the trait theory
-if theory is correct, personality/ behaviour can be predicted
- there is come evidence that personality is evidenced by genetics/ innate e.g. aggression
26
Criticisms of the trait theory
- too simplistic
- they do not account for personality changing over time
- they do not fully account for environmental or situational factors
- they fail to allow for individuals actively shaping and understanding their own personality
- they are not an accurate predictor of sport preference
- they have limited value as a predictor of sporting success
27
Personality
- involves the unique characteristics of an individual
- involves consistent behaviour patterns
28
Why is it important to know about personality?
— individuals behave in different ways
- better understanding can lead into better motivational or training strategies
- performer will relate better to those that understand them
29
What is a trait?
- characteristics of a personality
E.g. shyness, sensitivity, motivation, confidence
- innate to us/ we are born with it/ inherit it genetically from our parents
- stable disposition (doesn’t change)
- enduring to us (stays same throughout out lives)
- allows behaviour to be predicted
- doesn’t take into account the influence of the environment or significant others
30
Sporting example e.g. Vincent peter jones
- former British footballer/acter
- played for English teams like: Leeds united, Sheffield, Chelsea
- like his movies, he was furious and mad on the pitch as well
- he broke bones on field and quite a hard tackler
- dangerous of the pitch as well
- accused of assault, slapped a passenger, threatened to murder cabin crew
31
Extrovert
- affiliates well with other people
- good leadership qualities
- outgoing, sociable, talkative, loud
- becomes aroused more slowly than introverts
32
Introvert
- tends to be shy and reserved
- prefers isolation from others
- becomes aroused more quickly than extroverts
33
Neurotic (unstable)
- displays extreme and unpredictable emotions (mood swings)
- moods are unreliable
— experience high degrees of stress
34
Stable
- displays predictable emotions in approachable situations
- moods are predictive
- don’t experience much stress
35
Extroverts
- socially outgoing
- they need high arousal levels to perform
- coaches and teammates need to keep them ‘excited’ about performing
- they prefer team games with open skills and lots of unpredictability
36
What sports do extroverts prefer?
- exciting
- team sports
- fast-paced
- high arousal levels
- large, simple motor skills
- low concentration
E.g. rugby and boxing
37
Introverts
- they are usually shy
- they perform better at lower arousal levels
- too much stimulation will cause them to be over-aroused and they will not perform well
38
What sports do introverts prefer?
- concentration
- precision
- self motivation
- intricate closed skills
- low arousal levels
E.g. archery, golf
39
What are the 4 personality types?
1. Neurotic/ extrovert
2. Stable/ extrovert
3. Neurotic/ introvert
4. Stable/ introvert
40
What does trait theories believe personality is?
Innate (in our genes)
41
Nature
- individuals are a product of the genes of their parents
- a genetically inherited disposition
42
Nurture
- a learned pattern of behaviour acquired through reinforcement, imitation of the behaviour of others and general environment influences
43
Social learning theory
- explains how personality is learned or sculpted by one’s environment
- principle is we learn our personalities through two types of experience
1. Modelling
2. Reinforcement
- people we copy are known as models (Bandura)
- suggests personality is developed through relationships with others
- learned rather than genetically determined
- learnt by observing others around us
- imitation of others: social learning is more likely if those being observed are ‘significant’ or of high status
- personality is learned from others i.e. regardless of our traits, our behaviour and personality can be developed based on the people around us
- bandura believed that persoanlity= modelling + reinforcement
44
Positives of social learning theory
- there is evidence to suggest some aspects of personality are learned by watching and copying significant others/ role models
45
Criticisms of social learning theory
- limitation= doesn’t take into account genetically inherited traits
- too simplistic as its not likely to be just the environment that determines our personality
- children/siblings/ twins brought up in the same way don’t always display the same personality
- if the theory was true we would all have the same personality/ copy our role models
46
Vicarious
The process of learning through experience, through ones observations of their environment
47
Interactionist theory
- looking at the trait and situational approach
- takes into account the strengths of both of these theories
- each performer brings with them a basic set of personality traits to sporting situations
- however, the most significant effect may not just be from the persoanlity traits but from the interaction with the environment
- can be seen as a mixture of the best bits from trait personality theory and social learning theory
- an individual adopts their personality according to the environment
- behaviour is determined by the interaction of a person with his/her environment
- behaviour can not be predicted
48
Predictions made using interactionist theory
- when environmental factors are strong they are more likely to affect behaviour than persoanlity traits
E.g. quiet person may celebrate exuberantly when winning an important match (behaviour seen as unusual for that person)
- when persoanlity factors are stronger the situation; behaviour is more likely to be consistent with the performers regular personality traits
49
What did Lewin propose?
- a formula to explain this interaction between the person and the situation
- B= f (PE)
B= behaviour
F= function
P= personality traits
E= environment
- behaviour is the function of the sum of the individuals personality (traits) and the environment/ situation (social learning)
50
Sporting example of interactionist theory
Chris waddle (former English football star)
- he is generally confident on the pitch (trait) until he must take a penalty
- his past experience of missing penalties in important games (social learning) cause Chris to display a lack of confidence (resultant behaviour)
51
What does interactionist theory believe?
- we learn our behaviour from others but we also have our own traits
52
Hollanders layer of personality (what are the 3 layers)
1. Psychological core
2. Typical responses
3. Role related behaviours
53
What did Hollander provide a model to show?
How personality is structured
54
Psychological core
- it is the innermost
- reflects the fairly permanent traits that an individual has
- includes their values, beliefs and self-concept
55
Typical responses
- these traits determine how a person behaves and their typical responses
- e.g if they are shy and timid then they will act like this in most situations
56
Role related behaviour
- outer layer
- this is how we act in particular situations
- e.g. if an individual was asked to captain a team, they act boldly and assertively despite their hesitant and timid core
- depends on circumstances, environment and social norms
57
Example of psychological core
- a strong belief about cheaters never prosper so will be against rule breaking in general to succeed in the sport
58
Example of typical responses
- if a hockey player believes that there is never an excuse for violence then she is unlikely to behave in a violent fashion
59
Role related behaviours example
- although the hockey player doesn’t believe in violence, she might hit an opponents leg with her stick if that is the only way to stop her from scoring
60
David beckham example
- he appears quite quiet and placid off the pitch (loving husband; caring father; footballing role model/idol)
- during games he has sometimes reacted in ways that are inconsistent with his typical responses
61
Positives of interactionist persoanlity theory
- explains twice as much as trait persoanlity theory and social learning theory. More complex approach
- offers an explanation as to why personalities of sports performers can change in different circumstances
- used by many psychologists
- the coach or sports psychologist can use this dynamic approach and attempt to identify characteristic behaviour patterns in specific situations
62
Drawbacks of interactionist personality theory
- does mean the coach must recognise that each performer is unique, must devote time to developing an understanding of each person, and must treat them accordingly
63
Personality profiling
Should bother doing this
- personality involves consistent behaviour patterns
- important for sports psychologists to know about personality because individuals behave in different ways so it is important to understand them
- better understanding can lead to better motivational or training strategies
- performers will relate better to those that understand them
64
Advantages of profiling in sport
- useful to monitor progress
- time efficient and effective
- can gain an understanding of each individual; choose the correct coaching/ teaching style for performer to respond too
- provides persoanlity strengths and weaknesses
- put strategies in place to help athlete/ individual (anxiety etc)
65
Disadvantages of profiling in sport
- questionnaires/ interviews/ observations are not reliable as people may be bale to fix results
- evidence is too general; personality alone cannot predict behaviour
- research is not suitably evidenced e.g. introverts can do just as well in team sports as extroverts
66
Positives of questionnaires (EPI questionnaire- Eysenck) & 16 point personality questionnaire (Cattell’s)
- lots of subjects can be tested at the same time; quicker and more efficient system to use
- cheap and cost effective
- data gathered is objective (numerical result)
67
Negatives of questionnaires (EPI questionnaire- Eysenck) & 16 point personality questionnaire (Cattell’s)
- results vary when test is repeated; results affected by mood, situation, attitudes
- participants may lie/ give ‘socially acceptable’ responses
- closed questions limit answer responses
68
Positives of interviews
- possible more honest response
- less confusion of questions
- responder able to give an open response
69
Negatives of interviews
- time consuming
- participants may lie/ give ‘socially acceptable’ responses
- status of interview may affect answer given
70
Positives of observation
- see performers in their own environment
- individuals may behave more naturally
71
Negatives of observation
- time consuming
- subjective
- person being observed may act differently because they know they are being watched
72
Define the term personality
What makes a person unique or characteristics/ traits that influence behaviour
73
Describe the behaviour of a stable extrovert
Stable- predictable/ calm/ even tempered/ controlled/ constant
Extrovert- sociable/ outgoing/ seeks excitement/ may lack concentration
74
Give two strengths of the interactionist theory of personality
- more realistic than trait theory as it explains how the environment can trigger inherited traits
- it explains why our behaviour is often unpredictable
Extra one-
- explains why people in the same environment behave differently
75
Evaluate trait and social learning theories of persoanlity formation
Trait theory
Positives-
- if the theory is correct personality/ behaviour can be predicted
- influenced by genetics/ innate
Negatives-
- trait theory may be deemed to not be accurate as not likely to just be genetic input that determines our personality
- doesn’t account for how personality seems to change in different environments if it is just based on traits
Social learning theory
Positives-
- bobo doll experiment supports the idea/ adds validity
- there is evidence to suggest some aspects of persoanlity are learned by watching and copying (significant) others/ role models/ environment
Negatives
- may be viewed as too simplistic as it isn’t likely to be just our environment that determines our personality
- children/ siblings/ twins brought up in the same way don’t always display the same personality
76
Describe the social learning and interactionist theories of personality
Social learning
1. Observe and copy: we (observe and) copy/ emulate behaviour (of others) or copy significant others or copy role models
2. (Reinforcement): learning requires reinforcement or vicarious reinforcement
Interactionist
1. (Trait-environment): (personally determined by the) interaction/ function/ relationship between personality/ traits and the situation/ environment or personality interacting or reacting to the environment/ situation
2. (Changes in behaviour): behaviour changes depending on the demands of the situation/ environment/ role or personality is not predictable/ stable
77
What do we mean by the term personality? Why is it important for sports psychologists to know about personality? (3 marks)
- persoanlity involves the unique character is of an individual
- personality involves consistent behaviour patterns
- it is important for sports psychologists to know about persoanlity because individuals behave in different ways so it is important to understand them
- better understanding can lead to better motivational or training strategies
- performers will relate better to those that understand them
78
Eysenck identified two dimensions of personality. Describe the trait approach to persoanlity. What do the traits extroversion and stability mean? (5 marks)
- the trait approach sees the persoanlity of the performer as genetic or innate
- traits are the enduring characteristics of an individual
- it is innate to us/ we are born with it/ inherit it genetically from our parents
- it is a stable disposition ( it doesn’t change)
- it is enduring to us i.e. it stays the same throughout our lives
- allows behaviour to be predicted
- does not take into account the influence of the environment or significant others
Extrovert- the sportsperson seeks social situations or is sociable
Stable- the performer has a level personality, and is predictable or steady
79
Stable extrovert
Extrovert- sociable or outgoing or talkative or easy going
Stable- fairly even tempered or reliable or controlled
80
Neurotic introvert
Introvert- passive or quiet or peaceful or thoughtful or shy
Neurotic- moody or anxious or pessimistic or unstable
81
Discuss theories that are used to explain personality, and apply them to sporting situations (12 marks)
A01: personality is the term which describes the unique characteristics of an individual which makes him or her act as they do
- There are three main theories of personality: trait/ interactionalist/ social learning theory
A02:
- trait theories use the idea that a person has always had a feature of his or her personality and always will have
- eysenck is a trait who recognised four characteristics of personality
- extroversion includes characteristics such as liveliness sociability and impulseness. A person with this trait prefers team sports which have simple motor skills and low concentration levels for example rugby and boxing
- introversion includes characteristics such as isolation independence shyness. A person with this trait will prefer individual sports which require concentration precision self motivation, intricate skills low arousal levels. For example, archery golf and snooker.
- Neuroticism includes the fact that behaviour may change and so is unpredictable and irrational. For example, a sports person may lose his or her temper for no apparent reason.
- Stability means that behaviour is unchanging and a person will always react with calmness in the face of losing important points in a tennis match for example
- Eysenck identified a two dimensional view of personality as for primary types that can be applied to sporting situations
- a Stable extrovert is talkative outgoing has leadership qualities needed in team sports. This person attracts loyalty and is able to make definite and match changing decisions and patterns of play in a rugby match.
- a neurotic extrovert is restless, aggressive, excitable and changeable. Such a person may only succeeded in sports such as martial arts or weightlifting for example. This person may not get through the first round of an important table tennis tournament.
- A neurotic introvert is anxious, rigid and pessimistic. This person may not be able to implement new strategies when faced with a losing situation in an important game of rugby or hockey, for example.
- Stable introvert is controlled reliable and even tempered these characteristics are often observed in snooker players and other individual sports people
A03:
Positives:
- If theory is correct personality/ behaviour can be predicted
- There is some evidence that personality is evidenced by genetics/ innate e.g. aggression
- The research completed by psychologist such as Eysenck and cattell was widely criticised but provided a framework for further study and debate
Criticisms of the trait theories include:
- Too simplistic
- They do not account for personality changing overtime
- They do not fully for environmental or situational factors
- They fail to allow individuals actively shaping and understanding their own personality
- They are not an accurate predictor of sport preference
- They have limited value as a predictor of sporting success
Social learning theory
- Explains behaviour in terms of the reaction to specific situation
- The main point of social learning theory is that a person will learn to deal with situations by observing those around him or her and by imitating their behaviour (after bandura)
- This theory explains how athlete to learn behaviour by watching others such as learning skills and then copying them
- Interactionist theories are those which assert that a combination of traits and a person situation or environment builds up a persons personality
- traits determine behaviour can be modified by situations
- Lou was an interactionist who stated that behaviour is a combination of both inheritant (built-in) personality traits and environmental factors.
- The following equation describes the theory: B- f (P,E)
- Behaviour is the function of personality and environment
- The theory also states that personality traits can be used to predict behaviour in some situations but this is not exclusive
- The innate (trait) factors of the athletes personality cannot be changed by a coach
- a coach could manage a sport persons negative trait factors such as anxiety by
- For example, the anxiety could be channelled into positive images of her technical model
- Rejecting poor efforts due to external factors (for example, the weather or the wind)
- and building on positive images of successful technical elements achieved
- The athlete can build success by focusing on factors other than her own anxiety
- This strategy will enable the player to remove the stress from the situation and hence reduce anxiety- even if she were to lose
Positives
- that is evidence to suggest some aspects of personality Is learned by watching and copying significant/ role models
Criticisms of social learning theory include:
- Limitation= doesn’t take into account genetically inherited traits
- Too simplistic as it is not likely to be just the environment that determines our personality
- Children/ siblings/ twins brought up in the same way don’t always display the same personality
- If the theory was true, we would all have the same personality/ our role models
82
Hollander (1971) personality as a structure with layers of influence. Using examples from sport, explain Hollanders structure of personality (8 marks)
- Essentially a trait approach
- Psychological core (inner layer) not affected by the environment. It is the basis of beliefs. Example: a hockey player who believes in Fairplay or the value of physical exercise.
- Typical response layer (middle layer) which represents typical responses. Example: a hockey player usually turns up for training.
- Role related behaviour layer (outer layer) which represents our responses that are affected by circumstances. Example: may not take part in training because of lack of motivation on that day.
- social environment (surrounding layer) represents social influences or expectations. Example: hockey player may not take part in training because there are pressures from friends to do other activities.
83
Personality: discuss theories that are used to explain personality, and apply them to sporting situations. (15 marks)
A01:
Personality is the term which describes the unique characteristics of an individual which makes him or her act as they do.
There are three main theories of personality:
Trait theories use the idea that a person has always had a feature of his or her personality, and always will have. Personality is made up of several traits that cluster together to produce behaviours. Cattlell identified a large number of personality traits which he measured in a questionnaire called cattells EPI. This psychometric test is used by sports psychologists to assess trait behaviours. Eynsenck Is a trait theorist who recognised four characteristics of personality. Extrovert includes characteristics such as liveliness, sociability and impulsions. A person with this trait prefers team sports which have simple motor skills and low concentration levels, for example, rugby and boxing. Introvert (includes characteristics such as isolation, independence, shyness. A person with this trait will prefer individual sports which require concentration, Precision, self motivation, intricate skills, low arousal levels. For example, archery, golf and snooker. Neurotic includes the fact that behaviour may change and so is unstable and irrational.
A02:
For example, a sportsperson may lose his or her temper for no apparent reason. Stable means that behaviour is unchanging, and a person will always react with calmness in the face of losing important points in a tennis match, for example. Eynsenck identified a two-dimensional view of personality as four primary types that can be applied to sporting situations. A stable extrovert is talkative, outgoing, has leadership qualities needed in team sports. This person attracts loyalty and can make definite and match changing decisions on patterns of play in a rugby match. A neurotic extrovert is restless, aggressive, excitable, and changeable. Such a person may only succeed in sports such as martial arts or weightlifting for example. This person may not get through the first round of an important table tennis tournament. A neurotic introvert is anxious, rigid and pessimistic. This sportsperson may not be able to implement new strategies when faced with a losing situation in an important game of rugby or hockey for example. A stable introvert is controlled, reliable and even tempered. These characteristics are often observed in snooker players and other individual sports people
A03:
Positives
- if theory is correct, personality/ behaviour can be predicted
- some evidence personality is evidenced by genetics
Criticisms
- too simplistic
- don’t account for personality changing over time
A01:
Social learning theory explains behaviour in terms of the reaction to specific situations
The main point of social learning theory is that a person will learn to deal with situations by observing those around him or her and by imitating their behaviour ( after Bandar’s). This theory explains how athletes learn behaviour by watching others such as learning skills and then copying them
A02:
For example, bo bo doll which is watching and copying
A03:
Positives
- evidence to suggest some aspects of personality are learned by watching and copying significant others/ role models
Criticisms
- doesn’t take into account genetically inherited traits
- children/ siblings/ twins brought up in same way don’t display the same personality
A01:
Interaction isn’t theories are those which assert that a combination of trait and a persons situation or environment builds up a persons personality
Traits determine behaviour, but can be modified by situations. Hollander was an interactionist theorist who stated that behaviour is a combination of both inheritance (built-in) personality traits and environment factors. The following equation describes the theory.
- B= f (PE)
- behaviour is the function of personality and environment. The theory also states that personality traits can be used to predict behaviour in some situations, but this is not exclusive.
A02:
The innate (trait) factors of the athletes personality cannot be changed by a coach. A coach could manage a sportspersons negative trait factors, such as anxiety: for example, the anxiety could be channeled into positive images of her technical model. Rejecting poor efforts as due to external factors (for example,, the weather or the wind). And building on positive images of successful technical elements achieved. The athlete can then build success by focusing on factors other than her own anxiety. This strategy will enable the player to remove the stress from the situation and hence reduce anxiety.
A03:
Positives
- offers an explanation as to why the personalities of sports performers can change in different circumstances
- used by many psychologists
Criticisms
- must develop time to developing an understanding of each person
