Memory models Flashcards
1
Q
Basic information processing diagram
A
Stimuli input information display -> decisions made -> output action muscular response
2
Q
Information processing
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- when a sports performer interprets and judges the information around them then chooses and puts into action a sports skill
3
Q
Input
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Information is gathered from the environment/ display
4
Q
Decision making
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Gathered information is used to form a motor programme
5
Q
Output
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Motor programme completed by performer
6
Q
Feedback
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Information is gathered during and after the performance
7
Q
Stimuli/ input information
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- any info available to your thought process
- this can be from within the bodies internal receptors or from the environment
- sensory information relevant to the situation is stored in short-term memory
-the information is taken in through the senses before a decision being made - vision, hear, touch
- information is passed via nerves to the CNS and the brain
E.g. batting example- vision (watching ball), proprioception (identifying how the body is positioned), and audition (the sound of the bat on the ball or calls from team mates) - receive lots of info in body (Balance, touch receptors)
8
Q
Vision/ sight
A
-Vision is used to see things in the environment, whether this is the ball we are playing with or the track we are running on
- the eyes also play an important role in balance
9
Q
Auditory receptors
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- the ears detect auditory information or sounds
10
Q
Proprioception
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Kinesthesis: these receptors are crucial for the brain to interpret where are limbs are within the space around us
Equilibrium: our brains learn to interpret this information when we learn to sit, then stand and finally walk when we are young
Touch: provide vital information for balance when we are standing or running
11
Q
What are the two most commonly used models to illustrate information process
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- Whitings model
- Welfords model
12
Q
- Stimulus identification
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- information collected from the display via the sensory system
- this involves the performer using perceptual mechanism
- any information deemed irrelevant is filtered via selective attention to increase the speed of the decision making process
13
Q
- Decision making (Response identification)
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- the relevant information is assessed and a decision is made based on previous experiences which are stored in the memory
14
Q
- Output (response programming)
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- the motor programme is completed via the effector mechanism and the muscular system
15
Q
Whitings model
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- input data from display
- receptor systems
- perceptual mechanisms
- translatory mechanisms
- effector mechanisms
- muscular system
- output data
- feedback data
16
Q
Whitings model
A
- portrays exactly the same idea ad Welfords model but just categorises it differently
- Whitings explained that his model of information processing is due to the input of data using the receptor system, perceptual mechanism, translator mechanism, effector mechanism, output of data and feedback data
17
Q
Input data stage (Whitings model)
A
- It’s the stage where info you are going to receive is going to be displayed in front of you, this is detected by the receptor systems which is how we get the information
- These systems include visual information, auditory senses and the sense of feeling
18
Q
Perceptual mechanism stage (Whitings model)
A
- This is where the brain interprets the information that you have been given into a form that you can understand and then use
E.g. (football)- it is where you will need to move your foot to control (stimulus identification)
19
Q
Translatory mechanism stage (Whitings model)
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- This is where you use the information gathered to create a best possible decision for the environment and this information is sent to the effector mechanism (response identification)
20
Q
Effector mechanism stage (Whitings model)
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- The effectors use the motor cortex to create a motor plan and this is where the decision that you have chosen is being made, then the effector sends the signals to relevant muscle ready for another signal that is sent to the muscular system to allow the muscles to contract (response programming)
21
Q
Output data stage (Whitings model)
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- This is where you conduct the movement
E.g. (football)- you controlling the ball after its been passed to you
22
Q
Feedback data stage (Whitings model)
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- This is where signals from the brain tell you whether the action was successful or not
- It does this by comparing the outcome to other experiences
E.g. (football)- if you controlled the ball and it bounced up of your foot, that would have some unsuccessful areas, but if the ball stayed with your foot then it would have more successful areas to it
23
Q
A
24
Q
Welfords information processing model
A
Welfords model suggests that we:
> take in info through our senses and temporarily store all of these inputs before sorting them out
> the inputs that are seen as relevant to the decision are then stored in the short-term memory
> a decision is made by comparing the information in the short-term memory with previous experiences stored in the long-term memory
> regarding the long-term memory for the required action, the decision is carried out
> the action and results are stored for future reference
> the whole process then begins again
25
Summarise the three memory systems that are used in order to perform a motor skill
Three key systems
Short term sensory store (STSS):
> Functionally limitless store of information for a very short period of time up to 1-2s
> Little recoding in terms of spatial location and form
> Selected information passes into the STM for further processing
Short term memory (STM):
> A process whereby a stimulus can go through the detection
> Comparison and recognition (DCR) processing period
> Immediate processing <30s duration or information lost. ‘Work space’ between STM and LTM
> The capacity of short term memory is five to nine items
> Motor action plan formed
Long term memory store (LTM):
> Storage in our long term memory with unlimited capacity of all our experiences-recall
> Relatively permanent
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Memory
- It is subdivided into three components
Model:
Input of—>
Stimulus—>
From—> STSS —> Selective attention—> STM—> LTM
Sensory—>
Receptors—>
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Memory (Short-term sensory store) (STSS)
- It’s where information from our sense organs is received
- there are many different sense organs which means there are many items of information available to us at any particular moment
- it is thought that there is a STSS for each different sense (e.g. auditory, visual, kinaesthesis) so it is at the STSS that the process of selective attention occurs
- Selective attention: irrelevant information is ignored and the important information is ‘filtered’ and passed to the short term memory (STM). The unused information is discarded and will not be remembered
- It is estimated that information in the STSS will only be available for a few seconds unless it is passed to the STM
Example:
> A tennis player will attempt to focus on the ball, his position on court and his opponent.
> He will attempt to ignore the crowd, advertising boards and the consequences of the match.
> Often a performer with the ability to focus and block out distractions will be more effective than a potentially skilful player who cannot concentrate fully.
> Sometimes athletes have referred to this as ‘tunnel vision’.
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Short-term memory (STM)
- STSS AKA working memory
- It is here that information is consciously ‘thought about’
- Information is passing from the STSS into the STM as you are selectively attending to this stimuli
- Whilst held in the STM, the information can be acted upon by the performer but if not used it will be discarded
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Selective attention (example)
- A tennis player will attempt to focus on the ball, his position on court and his opponent.
- He will attempt to ignore the crowd, advertising boards and the consequences of the match.
- Often a performer with the ability to focus and block out distractions will be more effective than a potentially more skilful player who cannot concentrate fully.
- Sometimes athletes who have referred to this as ‘tunnel vision’
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Chunking (practical example)
- Movements can be learned and processed if they are “chunked” or grouped into larger movements
- this grouping increases an athletes capacity to learn and perform sport skills
- Break skills down only as much as is necessary
Example
Triple jump:
- learn the run up
- learn hop and step
- learn the jump and landing
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How do you retain information?
- It has to be transferred to the long term memory (LTM)
- However, repeating information regularly will kept it in the STM until it is transferred to the LTM of not needed any more and forgotten
- When we ‘retrieve’ information from the LTM it is brought into the STM or working memory
Example:
If you need to write your address on a form then you will retrieve the information from your LTM and ‘think about it’ before writing it down
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Memory: Long-term memory (LTM)
- It is the permanent retention of information through repetition or rehearsal
- It has the capacity to store vast amounts of information for an unlimited period of time
- When the performer is faced with a new situation, the relevant stimuli are passed on from the short-term memory, where a comparison is made with nay similar experiences.
- if any recognition does occur, the similarities are noted and a decision is made quickly
- if the situation is new, a motor programme will be formed based on available knowledge, but this may take slightly longer and delay the decision-making process
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What is the capacity thought to be in the LTM?
- limitless
- with no maximum
- memories can be stored ‘indefinitely’ or ‘for a lifetime’
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Memory processes of a novice performer
(Playing in a rugby match, in possession of the ball, with support players on either side)- they are confronted with a defender attempting to make a tackle
STSS: gathers information about some of his or her own team, opponents, own position; aware of crowd and coach calling instructions
STM: Some relevant stimuli collected, for example location of defender and position of one support player plus some irrelevant cues, for example shouts from the crowd about what to do
LTM: Limited reference data available, distracted by the crowd and either makes the pass to the closest support player or runs into the defender
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Memory processes of a experienced performer
(Playing in a rugby match, in possession of the ball, with support players on either side)- they are confronted with a defender attempting to make a tackle
STSS: Gathers information about his or her ow team, opponents, personal position
STM: Eliminates some stimuli, for example crowd noise and location of players who would not be an option to involve, but retains information about several possible teammates’ and defenders’ position
LTM: Large amount of previous experience allows the player to select from a range of options, to pass to the support player in the best position or to kick the ball into a suitable place or to another player
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The multi store memory model contains both short and long term memory stores
Analyse how the short and long term memory stores are used in the performance of physical activities (6 marks)
Short term
- perception occurs/ incoming information is interpreted/ judged/ working memory e.g. a tennis player judging the spin of the ball
- aspects of the environment are interpreted within approximately one minute e.g. the speed of the tennis ball taken into consideration for a serve return
- information is encoded/ info is rehearsed e.g. the flight of the ball is remembered
- Info in chunked/ organised e.g. the opponents position, the flight of the ball and the speed of the ball are organised in the brain
- comparison is made with info stored in the LTM/ information received from LTM e.g. the flight of the ball compared to a previous serve
- Response is then based on short term memory perceptions e.g. the player sees that the ball has top spin and therefore prepares to hit a faster bouncing ball
Long term
- Learned movements are stored/ motor programmes/ schema stored/ information that is approximately older than one minute used e.g. the tennis player has stored a number of serve- return movement patterns
- information encoded from STM is recognised/ current and past experiences compared e.g. previous returns of serve are linked to the present required movement pattern
- successful/ relevant performances are remembered or opponents strengths/ weaknesses are remembered e.g. the tennis player remembers returns of serve that have been successful before
- information is decoded/ sent to STM e.g. the return of serve movement pattern is remembered and then used for the present situation
37
Summarise the three memory systems that are used in order to perform a motor skill
- The three memory systems that are used to perform a motor skill are: short-term sensory system (STSS); short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM)
The STSS: it is thought that there is a STSS for each different sensory modality (e.g. auditory, visual, kinaesthesis) so it is at the STSS that the process of selective attention occurs in which irrelevant information is ignored and the important information is filtered and passed to the short term memory (STM). The unused information is discarded and will not be remembered. it is estimated that information in the STSS will only be available for a few seconds unless it is passed to the STM selected information passes into the STM for further processing
The STM: also known as the working memory process whereby a stimulus can go through the detection comparisons and recognition occurs during this period immediate processing (up to 30 seconds duration all the information is lost). It is the workspace between STM and LTM. The capacity of short-term memory is 5 to 9 items. This is where the motor action plan is formed to retain the information it has to be transferred to the long-term memory (LTM). However, repeating information regularly will keep it in the STM until it is transferred to the LTM or not needed any more and forgotten. When we retrieve information from the LTM, it is brought into the STM or working memory for example if you need to write your address on a form, then you will retrieve your information from your LTM and think about it before writing it down the storage capacity of the STM can be expanded by the process of chunking, this is a process by which information can be associated with other pieces of information to expand the STM capacity as simple example is how we remember a telephone number. It is chunk together into the dialling code and usually two groups of three or four numbers there are three chunks of information enabling us to recall 11 digits .
LTM: storage in our long-term memory is limitless/ unlimited capacity of all our experiences. This is where recall occurs information is relatively permanent stored
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Reaction time
- Reaction time is the time from the stimulus to the initiation of the response
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Movement time
Movement time is the time from the initiation of the response to the completion of the action
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Response time
Response time is the time from the stimulus to the completion of the movement
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How is reaction, movement and response time linked?
Reaction time+ movement time= response time
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Measuring reaction time (with a word cue)
- this method will once again calculate reaction time by calculating the time it takes to catch a dropped ruler, but in this method a final word cue is given, as well, after other words are spoken that should be ignored
1. Determine a particular word as a signal to catch the dropped ruler
2. Use a variety of words before dropping the ruler, disregard ruler catches on wrong word
3. Record the distance the ruler fell through the subjects fingers. Calculate reaction time in seconds as in #6 ab
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Measuring reaction time ( reaction time with a word )
1. Say a stimulus word as a signal to catch the dropped ruler. Do not predetermine the stimulus word. The subject will catch the ruler with nay word as a cue
2. This tie, however, the subject must also respond with a word
3. Keep a record of catches that do not count because of the lack of word association
4. Subject responds with a word and catches the ruler whilst responding. If unable to make a word association, the catch does not count
5. Record the distance the ruler fell through the subjects fingers
5. Calculate reaction time in seconds as before
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Measuring reaction time (choice reaction time test)
- This tests how fast you can respond to the random appearance of dots in a grid over the course of 30 seconds
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What are the different types of reaction time
1. Simple:
2. Choice:
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Simple:
One stimulus with only on correct response e.g, reacting to a starter gun by beginning to run down the track towards the finish
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Choice:
Either, several stimuli, which may have any number of possible responses or one stimuli with a number of possible responses
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Hicks Law
- Hick discovered that the greater the number of stimuli and response outcomes the slower reaction time is
Practical examples
Q- 100m sprint: how many responses are required for a sprint start? How many stimuli are there for a sprint start?
- the 100m sprint example provided above is an example of simple reaction time, a single response to a single stimulus. The sprinter on the blocks, waits for one stimulus, and once the stimulus goes ‘bang’ the reaction is to drive out of the blocks. The sprinter would look stupid if there was nay other reaction. As there is only one item of information to process, reaction time is quick
Compare that with an invasion game scenario: basketball: 3v2 situation: how many responses are required for a sprint start? How many stimuli
- in an invasion game like basketball, a player will receive many stimuli when they are in possession of the ball. In this situation the term choice reaction time is used. An example of this would be in a 3 versus 2 situation during a fast break. There are numerous possible situations; who is dribbling the ball, where are the supporting attackers positioned, where team mates are standing. There are also a number of possible responses
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Explain the meanings of the terms: perceptual mechanism, translatory mechanism, and effector mechnaisms, and relate these terms to stages in the whiting model (5 marks)
- perceptual mechanisms: the part of the brain which makes sense of the surroundings
- and gives this information meaning
- translatory mechanisms: the part of the brain whose purpose is to select relevant information
- from the total information received via senses from the surroundings
- effector mechnanisms: the part of the brain whose purpose is to set in motion the appropriate neuromuscular sequences to activate the skill
- they send messages to the limbs and muscles ready to perform the skill
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Short term sensory store (STSS)
- collects all the information entering the body via the sensory system
- it has a huge capacity to receive information but can only retain it for a short period of time- up to one second before it is lost
- the information is prioritised and irrelevant information are disregarded.
- this process is known as selective attention
- selective attention allows the performer to gather only important information and consequently speeds up the decision making time
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How can a performer improve their selective attention by?
- using appropriate practice and presentation methods
- highlighting specific cues on which to focus their concentration. This can be done by using different guidance methods
- altering the intensity of the stimulus, for example, colour and speed of the object, loudness of the sound and so on
- referring to past experiences
- making the stimuli meaningful or unique, for example make the performer think about the action in a different way. A basketball player snapping their wrist when taking. A free throw may be told to think ‘waving the ball goodbye’
- reaching the correct level of arousal and maintaining motivation
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Short term memory (STM)
- this receives the filtered information and compares it to stored information from past experiences before the final decision is made
- it has a limited capacity of 5-9 pieces of information which can be retained fro approximately 30 seconds
- if the information is practiced and learned, it is transferred to the long-term memory for future reference or it is released.
- It has implications for a coach when discussing guidance- if the coach overloads the performer with information, the performer will not be able to process all of it at once and their learning will be less effective
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How can a performer improve their short term memory by?
Chunking- the information is arranged into larger units or ‘chunks’, allowing more pieces of information to be stored. E.g. a set play in a game situation will be remembered by a single call, as in a rugby line-out
Chaining- the linking together of pieces of information, as used in progressive part method of practice. For example, when a gymnast is developing a sequence
Using selective attention- limiting the amount of irrelevant information passing into the short term memory
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Long term memory (LTM)
- It is the permanent retention of information through repetition or rehearsal
- it has the capacity to store vast amounts of information for an unlimited period of tine
- when the performer is faced with a new situation, the relevant stimuli are passed on from the short term memory where a comparison is made with nay similar experiences
- if any recognition does occur the similarities are noted and a decision is made quickly
- if the situation is new, a motor programme will be formed based on available knowledge, but this may take slightly longer and delay the decision making process
55
How can a performer improve their long term memory by?
- improving the capability of the short-term memory
- practising and repeating movements, causing ‘over learning’ of motor programmes
- developing a range of past experiences, for example modified games and realistic practice situations
- using mental rehearsal
- making the information meaningful, relevant and interesting to the performer
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What factors affect the speed of a performers reaction time?
- age (rt improves until the early 20s but then become slower)
- gender (males generally have faster rt but as we become older the difference becomes less)
- fatigue (tired performers tend to have slower rt)
- intensity of the stimulus- the more intense, the faster the rt
- probability of the stimulus occurring- if the stimulus is expected there is a reduced element of doubt and anticipation
- presence of a warning signal
- personality- introverts tend to have slower rt than extroverts
- sense used to detect the stimulus- sight, sound, touch and kinaesthetic awareness all produce different rt
Previous experience- the greater the experience, the faster the recall from the LTM
- arousal level- optimum arousal will cause heightened concentration levels and allow the performer to focus on key stimuli
Body temperature-n rt is slower if the body is cold
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What can the increase in reaction time be explained by?
- using the psychological refractory period (PRP)
- This delay is caused by an increase in the information processing time when the initial stimulus is closing followed by a second stimulus
- the reaction time is slowed because the first piece of information must be cleared before the second can be processed. As explained by the single channel hypothesis
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Single channel hypothesis
- suggests that the brain can only deal with on piece of information at a time
- when it receives several pieces in succession a ‘bottleneck’ is formed causing a slowing of the decision making process
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What is the most effective method used to improve reaction time?
- anticipation
- anticipation depends on past experience and involves the recognition of specific cues
- the performer attempts to predict the actions of the opponent
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What are the 2 forms of anticipation?
1. Spatial anticipation
2. Temporal anticipation
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Spatial anticipation
- involves the performer predicting what will happen
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Temporal anticipation
- involves the performer predicting when the action will happen
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What are other methods used to improve reaction time?
- relevant practice responding to specific cues or stimulus
- mental rehearsal
- concentration on early warning signals
- improvement of selective attention
- control of arousal levels
- improve of physical fitness
- altering the intensity of the stimulus
- identification of specific actions/ cues used by opponents (studying their game)
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DCR process
Detection: the performer detects relevant stimuli using sensory organs (e.g. eyes, ears).
Comparison: the stimulus is compared to stored memories of past experiences
Recognition: the performer recognises the stimulus and decides how to respond
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Short term sensory store (STSS)
Capacity: extremely large; capable of receiving vast amounts of sensory information from the environment
Duration- very brief; retains information for less than one second unless attention is directed to it
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Encoding
- information is stored in its original sensory form:
- visual (iconic): sight
- auditory (echoing): sound
- tactile (haptic): touch
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Short term memory (STM)
- capacity: limited; typically holds about 7+- dieters or “chunks” of information
- duration: approximately 20-30 seconds without rehearsal; information can be retained longer with active rehearsal
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Encoding
- primarily acoustic (based on sound), but can also indicate visual and semantic coding
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Long term memory (LTM)
- capacity- unlimited
- duration- potentially lifelong
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Encoding
- mainly semantic (based on meaning)
- also includes visual and auditory encoding
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Multi-store memory model
- proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
- explains memory as a linear process with 3 distinct stores:
1. Short-term sensory store (STSS)- receives raw sensory input
2. Short-term memory (STM)- Processes and rehearse information
3. Long-term memory (LTM)- stores information for future use
Information transfers from STM to LTM through
- rehearsal
- practice
- meaningful association
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Role of LTM
- stores motor programmes (can be retrieved with little conscious thought)
- support decision making
- improves performance consistency
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Retrieval and Rehearsal: Impact on Output
- Rehearsal: Repeated practice of information in STM can lead to its encoding into LTM. This process strengthens memory traces, making retrieval more efficient during performance.
- Retrieval: When performing a skill, relevant information is retrieved from LTM back into STM, allowing for conscious processing and execution.
- Impact on Output: Efficient rehearsal and retrieval processes lead to quicker and more accurate responses during performance. Skills become more automatic, reducing cognitive load and allowing for better decision-making under pressure.
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Measuring Reaction and Response Times
Technologies Used:
- Light Gates: Measure the time an athlete breaks a beam of light, commonly used in sprint starts.
- Electronic Timing Systems: Provide precise measurements of reaction and movement times.
- Computer-Based Tests: Software that assesses reaction times through visual or auditory stimuli.
- Jensen Box: An apparatus measuring choice reaction time by requiring participants to respond to illuminated buttons .
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Plotting and Analyzing Reaction Time Data
- Data Collection: Use of timing systems to record reaction times under various conditions.
- Graphical Representation: Plotting reaction time against the number of choices to visualize the impact of increased options. 
- Analysis: Interpreting graphs to understand how complexity affects reaction time and to identify areas for performance improvement.
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Psychological Refractory Period (PRP)
Definition: A delay in response to a second stimulus when it follows closely after a first stimulus, due to the processing bottleneck in the central nervous system.
Example: In sports, if an athlete is responding to one opponent’s move, their response to a subsequent move by another opponent may be delayed.
Implication: Understanding PRP helps in training athletes to manage multiple stimuli and improve multitasking abilities . 
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Implications for Coaches and Performers
- Skill Development: Training to improve reaction times through drills that simulate game situations.
- Decision-Making: Reducing the number of choices in practice to enhance decision speed and accuracy.
- Anticipation Training: Developing the ability to predict opponents’ actions to reduce reaction time.
- Managing PRP: Designing training sessions that help athletes cope with multiple stimuli and reduce delays in response.
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What is Schema Theory?
- Proposed by Schmidt (1975), Schema Theory suggests that we don’t store individual motor programmes for every skill.
- Instead, we store “schemas” — generalised movement patterns or frameworks in the long-term memory (LTM) that are updated every time a movement is performed.
- These schemas allow us to adapt our movements to different situations.
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Two Main Types of Schema
1. Recall Schema (used to initiate and control movement)
This is developed before the movement occurs and includes:
- Initial Conditions – Information about the environment and body position (e.g., Where am I? What’s happening around me?).
- Response Specifications – Information about how to perform the movement (e.g., What force, direction, or speed is needed?).
2. Recognition Schema (used to evaluate the movement)
This is used after the movement to judge whether it was successful:
- Sensory Consequences – What did the movement feel like? (kinaesthetic feedback).
- Movement Outcomes – Was the outcome what I intended? (knowledge of results).
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How Schema Theory Works
1.Performer receives input (e.g., a ball coming toward them).
2. Recall schema is used to generate the motor programme to deal with the situation.
3. The skill is performed.
4. Recognition schema is used after the movement to compare the result and feel of the movement with expectations.
5. Schema is updated in LTM for future performances.
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Practical Example: A Netball Pass
- Initial Conditions: Knowing you’re 5 metres from your teammate, in motion, and under pressure.
- Response Specifications: Deciding to use a chest pass with moderate force.
- Sensory Consequences: Feeling the ball leave your hands with the expected force.
- Movement Outcome: The pass reaches your teammate accurately.
If the pass was too short or too weak, the recognition schema updates for next time, refining your technique.
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Implications for Coaches and Performers
For Coaches:
- Vary practice conditions to strengthen schema development (e.g., different angles, speeds, surfaces).
- Encourage kinaesthetic awareness so athletes can self-correct.
- Use feedback (both knowledge of results and performance) to help refine recognition schemas.
- Promote problem-solving over repetition to make athletes more adaptable.
For Performers:
- Understand the importance of practice variety to improve adaptability in unfamiliar situations.
- Use feedback effectively to adjust future performance.
- Develop a sense of feel for correct movements (sensory consequences).
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Summary
Schema Theory:
- Explains how movements are adapted and controlled.
- Helps athletes become more flexible and efficient in different sporting scenarios.
- Supports the use of varied practice and feedback in training.
