PART 2. THEORY & RESEARCH Flashcards
Coherent set of logically related concepts that seeks to organize, explain, and predict data.
Theory
Possible explanations for phenomena, used to predict the outcome of research.
Hypotheses
2 Basic Issues
Active or Reactive
Continuous or Discontinuous
Who proposed the mechanistic model?
John Locke
Who proposed the organismic model?
Jean Jacques Rousseau
This model believes that people are like machines that react to the environment. It believes development is continuous and changes are quantitative.
Mechanistic Model
This model believes that people are active, growing organisms that set their own development in action. It believes development is discontinuous and changes are qualitative.
Organismic Model
5 MAJOR PERSPECTIVES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Psychoanalytic Learning Cognitive Contextual Evolutionary/Sociobiological
This perspective focuses on the unconscious emotions and drives.
Pychoanalytic
This views development in the light of observable behaviors.
Learning
It is a human developmental view that emphasizes the thought process.
Cognitive
It views development through the historical, social, and context lens.
Contextual
Proposed by E.D. Wilson. This perspective believes that human development occurs because of the evolutionary and biological underpinnings of behavior.
Evolutionary/Sociobiological
3 Parts of Personality according to Freud
Id
Ego
Superego
Acts according to the pleasure principle
Id
The mediator of Id and Superego. It is responsible for finding realistic ways that satisfies the Id that are acceptable to the Superego.
Ego
Stages in Freud’s Psychosexual Development
Oral stage (birth; 0-1 yrs) Anal Stage (1-3 yrs) Phallic Stage (3-5 yrs) Latency Stage (5 yrs to puberty) Genital Stage (from puberty on)
Occurs when a kid, while growing up, received too much or too little of something in a certain stage.
fixation
This stands up to moral standards and aims to please others.
Superego
Stages of Erikson’s Psychosocial Development
Trust VS Mistrust (0 to 1 1/2 yrs) = Hope
Autonomy VS Shame and Doubt (1 1/2 to 3 yrs) = Will
Initiative VS Guilt (3 to 5 yrs) = Purpose
Industry VS Inferiority (5 to 12 yrs) = Competence
Identity VS Role Confusion (12 to 18 yrs) = Fidelity
Intimacy VS Isolation (18 to 40 yrs) = Love
Generativity VS Stagnation (40 to 65 yrs) = Care
Ego Integrity VS Despair (65 and above yrs) = Wisdom
This theory of human development believe personality is influenced by society and develops through a series of stages with positive and negative tendencies. Positives must dominate but some degree of negative is needed to achieve optimal development.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Development
[Active]
major psychosocial challenge that is particularly important at that time and will remain an issue to some degree throughout life.
crisis in personality
Theory that states behavior is controlled by powerful unconscious urges (libido).
Freud’s Psychosexual Development
[Reactive]
Theories that says people are responders to the environment.
Behaviorism
[Reactive]
In this theory, children learn in a social context by observing and imitating others.
Bandura’s Social learning theory
[Active and Reactive]
This theory believes that changes are qualitative and occurs between infancy and adolescence.
Piaget’s cognitive-stage theory
[Active]
A theory that emphasizes social interaction as the central ingredient of cognitive development.
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
[Active]
It notes that human beings are processors of symbol.
Information-processing theory
[Active]
In this theory, the developing person and 5 contextual influences interact.
Bronfrenbrenner’s bioecological theory
[Active]
These theories says that human beings are the product of adaptive processes.
Evolutionary psychology
Bowlby’s attachment theory
[Active and Reactive - theorists vary]
This conditioning refers to the association of stimuli and event.
Classical conditioning
This conditioning refers to the association of behavior and consequences.
Operant conditioning
Process of strengthening a behavior thus, increasing the chances of the behavior occurring again.
Reinforcement
Process by which a behavior is weakened,
decreasing the likelihood of repetition.
Punishment
It is a form of operant conditioning used to eliminate undesirable behavior or to instill desirable behaviors.
Behavioral modification therapy
Who says “Impetus for development is bidirectional.”
Albert Bandura
The person acts on the world as the world acts on the person.
reciprocal determinism
Also known as modeling pertains to the learning through watching and imitating models.
Observational learning
sense of one’s capability to master and achieve goals
self-efficacy
Stages in Piaget’s cognitive theory
Sensorimotor stage (0 to 2 yrs)
Preoperational stage (2 to 7 yrs)
Concrete operational stage (7 to 11 yrs)
Formal operational stage (12 and above yrs)
3 Interrelated Process of Cognitive Growth
Organization
Adaptation
Equilibration
A cognitive growth process wherein kids start to create categories or systems of knowledge.
Organization
A cognitive growth process wherein kids adjust to new information or environment. It is achieved through assimilation and accommodation.
Adaptation
A cognitive growth process wherein kids tend to seek balance among cognitive elements. It is achieved through balance between assimilation and accommodation.
Equilibration
these are set of organized patterns
schemes
Process of incorporating new information into an existing cognitive structure.
Assimilation
Process of changing a cognitive structure in order to include new information.
Accommodation
The gap between what a child can do alone and what the child can do with help.
zone of proximal development (ZPD)
temporary support to help a child master a task
scaffolding
5 systems/contextual influences in the Bioecological theory
Microsystem Mesosystem Exosystem Macrosystem Chronosystem
It is the bidirectional influences between the developing child and their immediate surroundings.
Examples: home, school, and peers
Microsystem
It is the interaction of 2 microsystems.
Mesosystem
Encompasses factors that do not directly affect a developing child.
Example: parent’s jobs
Exosystem
Pertains to the culture or society that frames the structures and relationships among the systems.
Examples: economic and political systems
Macrosystem
Considers when and how major events happen. It is the timing of events throughout the course of life.
Chronosystem
behaviors that developed to solve problems in adapting to an earlier environment
evolved mechanism
It is the study of distinctive behaviors of species of animals that have evolved to increase survival of species.
Ethology
It applies the application of Darwinian principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest to individual behavior.
Evolutionary psychology
participants chosen to represent a population
sample
selection of sample in a way that each person has an equal chance of being chosen.
random selection
The result of a random selection.
random sample
FORMS OF DATA COLLECTION
Observation
Self-reports
Behavioral/Performance Measures
An interview wherein participants answer the same set of questions.
Structured interview
An interview wherein researchers may have follow-up questions.
Open-ended interview
when participants fill up a paper
survey/ questionnaire
stated solely in terms of operations used to measure a phenomenon
operational definition
Study of links between neural processes and cognitive abilities.
cognitive neuroscience
BASIC RESEARCH DESIGNS
Case study
Ethnographic study
Correlational study
Experiment
It is an in-depth study of a single individual.
Case study
It is an in-depth study of a culture or subculture.
Ethnographic study
Attempts to find positive or negative relationships between variables.
Correlational study
It is a controlled procedure in which an experimenter controls the independent variable to determine its effects on the dependent variable.
Experiment
people who are to be exposed to the experimental manipulation or treatment
experimental group
people who do not receive the treatment
control group
variable in which experimenter has direct control
independent variable
variable that may or may not change as a result of changes in independent variable
dependent variable
assignment of participants in an experiment to groups in such a way that each person has an equal chance of being placed in any group
random assignment
observer lives with people in the activty being observed
participant observation
DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
Cross-sectional
Longitudinal
Sequential
Data is collected from people of different ages at the same time.
Cross-sectional
Data is collected from the same person/s over a period of time.
Longitudinal
Data is collected on successive cross-sectional/longitudinal samples.
Sequential
ETHICS OF RESEARCH
- informed consent
- avoidance of deception
- protect respondents from harm and loss of dignity
- privacy and confidentiality
- right to decline or withdraw
- correct any undesirable effects
3 PRINCIPLES TO RESOLVE ETHICAL DILEMMAS
- Beneficence
- Respect
- Justice
Pertains to an investigator’s obligation to maximize potential benefits to participant and to minimize potential harm.
Beneficence
Put in regard the participant’s autonomy and protection of those who are unable to exercise their own judgement.
Respect
Inclusion of diverse groups together with sensitivity to any special impact the research may have on them.
Justice
