Parental Behaviour

Question 1

What is parental behavior?

Answer 1

Behavior expressed by parents towards their offspring- providing food, shelter, warmth and social contact.

A special case of social behavior occurring between closely related individuals during specific life stages and locations.

Question 2

How does parental behavior contribute to inclusive fitness theory?

Answer 2

Parental investment leads to offspring survival, which increases the heritable potential/fitness of parents.

Costs and benefits are evaluated based on offspring survival.

Question 3

What is parent-offspring conflict?

Answer 3

Offspring are evolutionarily selected to demand more resources than the mother is selected to provide.

Theory described by Trivers in 1974.

Question 4

What are the goals of the parent and offspring in parental behavior?

Answer 4

Offspring benefit from parent’s provision; parents provide care based on payoff on investment and resource availability.

Question 5

What are the two categories based on litter size?

Answer 5

• Oligotocous: one or few young at each birth
• Polytocous: large litter at each birth

Question 6

How are species categorized based on developmental stage of young?

Answer 6

• Altricial: hatched or born early in development (e.g., carnivores, rodents)
• Precocial: hatched or born late in development (e.g., ungulates, chicks)

Question 7

What are the characteristics of ‘r-strategists’ in reproduction?

Answer 7

• Large number of offspring
• Little or no parental care
• Low survivorship
• Unstable environments
• Reach maturity early
• Short life expectancy

Question 8

What are the characteristics of ‘K-strategists’ in reproduction?

Answer 8

• Small number of offspring
• Large amount of parental care
• High survivorship
• Stable environments
• Reach maturity later
• Long life expectancy

Question 9

What is the difference in parental investment between males and females?

Answer 9

Females invest more in eggs, while males invest less in sperm.

This influences mate selection behavior.

Question 10

What defines the mother-offspring bond in precocial ungulates?

Answer 10

• Hiders (e.g., deer, cattle)
• Followers (e.g., sheep, goats)

Question 11

How do ewes exhibit behavior at parturition?

Answer 11

Ewes separate from the flock to give birth and form a strong bond with their lambs.

Question 12

What is the significance of birth fluids in lamb recognition?

Answer 12

Lambs are strongly attracted to birth fluids, which aids in isolation and bonding.

Question 13

What are the actions involved in nursing and suckling?

Answer 13

• Nursing: action of the mother providing milk
• Suckling: action of offspring to obtain nutrients
• Sucking: action of offspring directed to non-teat

Question 14

What happens during the weaning process?

Answer 14

Gradual reduction of milk intake, controlled by the ewe, and occurs when demands may impact next year’s offspring.

Question 15

What is the role of fostering in management?

Answer 15

Important during the period of maternal responsiveness, utilizing birth fluids for recognition.

Question 16

What are the implications of the parent-offspring conflict theory?

Answer 16

Weaning occurs earlier when resources are poor, showing the conflict between parental investment and offspring demands.

Question 17

What is the behavior of ewes when lambing in cubicles?

Answer 17

Ewes do not separate from their lambs by more than 1.2 m, and twins are never separated by more than 0.7 m.

Question 18

True or False: Predators tend to be altricial.

Answer 18

True

Predators leave offspring to hunt, while prey tend to be precocial.

Question 19

Fill in the blank: Oligotocous species tend to have _______ young at each birth.

Answer 19

[one or few]

Question 20

Fill in the blank: Precocial species are characterized by being hatched or born _______.

Answer 20

[late in development]

Question 21

What type of species are pigs classified as?

Answer 21

Polytocous, precocial species

Polytocous means they can give birth to multiple offspring at once, and precocial indicates that the young are relatively mature and mobile from the moment of birth.

Question 22

What was the purpose of the Edinburgh ‘Pig Park’ study?

Answer 22

To observe pigs in a semi-natural environment

Conducted in the 1980s, this study focused on the social behavior of pigs in family groups.

Question 23

What are the main behaviors observed in free-ranging pigs according to Stolba & Wood-Gush (1989)?

Answer 23

Suckling, social relationships, ontogeny

These behaviors provide insight into the natural interactions and development of pigs.

Question 24

What is The Family Pen System as described by Kerr et al. (1988)?

Answer 24

Pigs kept in small family groups

This system mimics natural groupings and allows a full range of behaviors.

Question 25

What are some behaviors allowed by The Family Pen System?

Answer 25

* Isolation * Nesting * Nursing * Rooting

Question 26

What does 'polytocous' indicate about pig reproduction?

Answer 26

Not expected that all young will survive ## Footnote As an r species, pigs can rapidly grow in population when resources are abundant.

Question 27

What influences the selection of a nest site in pigs?

Answer 27

Hormones (prostaglandin F2-alpha, estradiol, progesterone) ## Footnote Nest site selection occurs 1-2 days before parturition.

Question 28

When does nest building behavior start in pigs?

Answer 28

From 7 hours before farrowing until 6 hours after birth of the first piglet ## Footnote This behavior is driven by hormonal changes.

Question 29

What facilitates the recognition of a litter in pigs?

Answer 29

Nest building behavior ## Footnote The sow treats the litter as a single entity, which aids in recognition.

Question 30

How do neonate pigs locate the udder?

Answer 30

Attracted to warmth and softness ## Footnote Preference tests showed that piglets spent significant time contacting warm, soft surfaces.

Question 31

What are the effects of farrowing crates on sows and piglets?

Answer 31

Limits sow behavior and movement ## Footnote This includes restrictions on nest building and interaction with piglets.

Question 32

How often does a sow nurse her piglets?

Answer 32

Approximately every hour ## Footnote Nursing bouts last 4-10 minutes.

Question 33

What is the significance of establishing a teat order among piglets?

Answer 33

Occurs quickly after birth ## Footnote Piglets establish teat order within an hour before the last piglet is born.

Question 34

What is the parent-offspring conflict in the context of weaning?

Answer 34

Weaning is a gradual process leading to termination of lactation ## Footnote Delayed weaning can increase offspring survival, but is costly in terms of milk production.

Question 35

What type of species are cattle classified as?

Answer 35

Oligotocous, precocial ## Footnote Oligotocous indicates that they typically give birth to fewer offspring.

Question 36

What did studies on semi-feral Scottish Highland cattle reveal about calf behavior?

Answer 36

Time taken for calves to stand varies by breed ## Footnote For example, beef calves take about 35 minutes, while dairy heifers take about 73 minutes.

Question 37

What behavior is observed in cows immediately after calving?

Answer 37

Licking the calf and consuming the amnion and placenta ## Footnote This behavior is thought to aid in bonding and nutrition.

Question 38

What recent findings indicate about cow behavior during calving?

Answer 38

Cows prefer to isolate and use calving pens ## Footnote This behavior is similar to that observed in sheep.

Question 39

What is the gradual shift in diet for calves during weaning?

Answer 39

Milk -> milk & solids -> solids ## Footnote This process indicates a transition from dependence on milk to solid food.