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Physiology > Overview of immunology > Flashcards

Overview of immunology Flashcards

1
Q

What is immunology?

A

Immunology is the study of how the body protects itself from foreign organisms and foreign non-invasive cells, tissues, and molecules.

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2
Q

What is inflammation?

A

Inflammation is a non-specific local immune response of living tissue to injury.

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3
Q

What are the different types of pathogens?

A

The different types of pathogens are viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites.

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4
Q

What is negative selection in the immune system?

A

Negative selection deletes potentially self-reactive immune cells, generating a repertoire of immune cells that is mostly self-tolerant.

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5
Q

What are dendritic cells?

A

Dendritic cells are another type of phagocyte that live for days to weeks and are capable of activating T lymphocytes, becoming antigen-presenting cells.

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6
Q

What is the function of eosinophils?

A

Eosinophils play a role in defending against parasitic infections by secreting highly toxic proteins and free radicals that are effective at killing bacteria and parasites.

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7
Q

What do helper T cells do?

A

Helper T cells direct the immune system by secreting cytokines; they play a critical role in coordinating the immune response and help activate other cells, including B cells and cytotoxic T cells

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8
Q

What is the function of suppressor/regulator T cells?

A

Suppressor/regulator T cells suppress the activity of other lymphocytes to control immune responses, helping to maintain immune system balance and prevent autoimmune reactions.

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9
Q

What is the difference between innate and adaptive immunity?

A

Innate immunity is active for several hours after the infection and includes components such as epithelial barriers, phagocytes, dendritic cells, plasma proteins, and natural killer cells. Adaptive immunity is active for days after the infection and includes components such as naïve B cells and naïve T cells.

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10
Q

What are the local and systemic effects of IL-1ß?

A

IL-1ß activates vascular endothelium and lymphocytes, destroys local tissue and increases access of effector cells locally; it causes fever and production of IL-6 systemically.

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11
Q

What are the local and systemic effects of IL-6?

A

IL-6 activates lymphocytes and increases antibody production locally; it causes fever and induces acute-phase protein production systemically.

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12
Q

What is the role of CXCL8 in the immune response?

A

CXCL8 recruits neutrophils, basophils, and T cells to the site of infection locally.

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13
Q

What is the role of IL-12 in the immune response?

A

IL-12 activates natural killer cells and induces the differentiation of CD4 T cells into T helper cells locally.

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14
Q

What is the role of IL-12 in the immune response?

A

IL-12 activates natural killer cells and induces the differentiation of CD4 T cells into T helper cells locally.

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15
Q

How do neutrophils enter tissues during an immune response?

A

Neutrophils roll along the endothelium and attach to it through a series of interactions involving selectins and integrins; once attached, they can squeeze between the endothelial cells and enter the tissue.

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16
Q

What is the process of lysis or apoptosis in the immune response?

A

The process involves natural killer cells recognizing and destroying target cells, such as virus-infected cells or tumor cells, by inducing programmed cell death or disintegrating the cell.

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17
Q

What are the symptoms of inflammation?

A

The symptoms of inflammation include swelling, redness, heat, and pain at the site of inflammation; the presence of pus is also a sign.

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18
Q

How is inflammation detected through blood tests?

A

Inflammation can be detected through:
1. an increase in the number of neutrophils or the presence of C-reactive protein above the normal level

  1. the erythrocyte sedimentation rate can also indicate the presence of inflammation.
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19
Q

What is the role of the endothelium in the immune response?

A

The endothelium can be activated by circulating cytokines during an infection or injury, causing it to express molecules that attract immune cells, such as neutrophils, to the site of infection.

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20
Q

What are the two types of adaptive/acquired immunity?

A

The two types of adaptive/acquired immunity are the humoral response and the cell-mediated response.

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21
Q

What type of immunity are T-lymphocytes involved with?

A

T-lymphocytes are involved with the cell-mediated response.

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22
Q

What type of immunity are B-lymphocytes involved with?

A

B-lymphocytes are involved with the humoral response.

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23
Q

What is the role of MHC molecules in the immune system

A

MHC molecules present foreign antigens to T cells, playing a crucial role in the immune system.

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24
Q

What are the two main classes of MHC molecules?

A

The two main classes of MHC molecules are MHC class I and MHC class II.

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25
Q

What type of antigens are presented by MHC class I molecules?

A

MHC class I molecules present endogenous antigens, which are derived from proteins synthesized within the cell.

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26
Q

What type of antigens are presented by MHC class II molecules?

A

MHC class II molecules present exogenous antigens, which are derived from proteins that have been taken up from the extracellular environment

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27
Q

What is the immune system’s response to a viral infection?

A

The immune system’s response to a viral infection involves the recognition and elimination of the infected cells by specific T cells called CD8+ T cells.

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28
Q

How do activated CD8+ T cells destroy infected cells?

A

Activated CD8+ T cells can differentiate into cytotoxic T cells, which recognize and destroy infected cells by releasing toxic substances such as perforin and granzyme, which can induce cell death.

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29
Q

What is the role of antibodies in the immune system?

A

Antibodies can help to flag pathogens for destruction by the immune system by binding to Fc receptors on immune cells, leading to their clearance from the body.

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30
Q

What is a primary immune response?

A

A primary immune response occurs when the immune system encounters a foreign antigen for the first time.

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31
Q

What is a secondary immune response?

A

A secondary immune response occurs when the immune system encounters the same antigen after the first time.

32
Q

Which cells are stimulated during a primary immune response?

A

During a primary immune response, mature naïve B-cells and T-cells are stimulated.

33
Q

Which antibodies are mainly produced during a primary immune response?

A

Mainly IgM antibodies are produced during a primary immune response.

34
Q

Which antibodies are mainly produced during a secondary immune response?

A

Mainly IgG antibodies are produced during a secondary immune response.

35
Q

Which antibody has the highest affinity for an antigen?

A

IgG antibodies have the highest affinity for antigens.

36
Q

What is dysbiosis?

A

Dysbiosis occurs when there is an excessive amount of harmful bacteria and too little beneficial bacteria.

37
Q

How does dysbiosis lead to inflammation?

A

Dysbiosis can lead to inflammation by impairing the mucus membrane and weakening the tight junctions between the gut cells, causing gaps for bacteria to penetrate through and enter the bloodstream, triggering an inflammatory response

38
Q

What type of microscopy is used for high-resolution images of biological specimens?

A

Confocal microscopy is used for high-resolution images of biological specimens.

39
Q

What is immunoprecipitation?

A

Immunoprecipitation is a technique used to isolate and purify specific proteins from a complex mixture using antibodies.

40
Q

What is Western blotting?

A

Western blotting is a technique used to detect specific proteins in a complex mixture using antibodies.

41
Q

How do chemokines attract immune cells to the site of inflammation?

A

Chemokines diffuse across the endothelial cells and bind to specific receptors on the surface of circulating immune cells, triggering intracellular signaling events that activate the immune cells and cause them to adhere to the endothelial cells and migrate through the vessel wall and into the surrounding tissue.

42
Q

What are molecular switches?

A

Molecular switches are biological molecules that can exist in multiple conformations or states and can toggle between them in response to specific signals or stimuli.

43
Q

What is the “off” position and the “on” position of GDP and GTP?

A

GDP is the “off” position and GTP is the “on” position.

44
Q

How is a G protein-coupled receptor activated?

A

A ligand, such as a hormone or neurotransmitter, binds to the extracellular domain of the receptor, leading to a conformational change in the receptor that triggers the activation of a heterotrimeric G protein consisting of alpha, beta, and gamma subunits.

45
Q

What is the function of the alpha subunit of a G protein?

A

The alpha subunit of a G protein can bind to and regulate the activity of effector proteins, such as enzymes or ion channels, leading to the activation of downstream signaling pathways.

46
Q

What is the second messenger in the cAMP biochemistry pathway?

A

3’5’-cyclic AMP is the second messenger in the cAMP biochemistry pathway.

47
Q

What is CCR5?

A

CCR5 is a chemokine receptor involved in the regulation of immune cell migration and inflammation.

48
Q

What are some examples of inappropriate immune responses?

A

Allergies and autoimmune diseases

49
Q

What is a pathogen?

A

A pathogen is any foreign organism that enters or is present inside the body and can cause harm, disease, and affect normal functioning.

50
Q

What is an antigen?

A

An antigen is a molecule that is attached to a foreign organism and activates an immune response by generating antibodies.

51
Q

What is the difference between monocytes and macrophages?

A

Monocytes are short-lived white blood cells that live in the blood for 1-3 days, while macrophages are also white blood cells that live for a longer period of time (months) in tissues.

52
Q

What are neutrophils?

A

Neutrophils are short-lived cells that last around 5 days and are highly effective at killing bacteria through the release of granules containing lysozyme and other degradative enzymes.

53
Q

What is the function of basophils?

A

Basophils release histamine and heparin, which are involved in inflammation, and are phagocytes involved in allergic responses.

54
Q

What is the function of mast cells?

A

Mast cells release histamine and heparin, which are involved in inflammation, and are phagocytes involved in allergic responses.

55
Q

What are killer/cytotoxic T cells responsible for?

A

Killer/cytotoxic T cells are responsible for the destruction of host cells that are infected with viruses or other intracellular pathogens by recognizing and killing infected cells directly.

56
Q

What is the function of memory T cells?

A

Memory T cells provide long-lasting immunity by remaining in the body for years after the initial exposure to an antigen so that they can quickly recognize and respond to the antigen if it is encountered again

57
Q

What is the B cell receptor (BCR)?

A

The B cell receptor (BCR) is a surface antibody (or immunoglobulin) that binds to a specific antigen.

58
Q

What happens when the BCR binds to its antigen?

A

When the BCR binds to its antigen, it activates the B lymphocyte, which then multiplies and differentiates into plasma cells or memory cells.

59
Q

What are the local and systemic effects of TNF-α?

A

TNF-α activates vascular endothelium and increases vascular permeability locally; it causes fever, mobilisation of metabolites, and shock systemically.

60
Q

What is the structure of CCR5?

A

CCR5 is a seven-transmembrane domain protein, with the extracellular domain containing the ligand-binding site and the intracellular domain interacting with G proteins.

61
Q

What is the flag-NH2 label on the N-terminus of CCR5?

A

The flag-NH2 label is a molecular tag used in biochemical and genetic studies to label and track CCR5 in various experiments.

62
Q

What is cytokine receptor signaling?

A

Cytokine receptor signaling is the process by which cytokine receptors transmit signals from the outside of the cell to the inside.

63
Q

What is the growth hormone receptor and how does it exist?

A

When growth hormone binds to the growth hormone receptor, it causes a conformational change that results in the formation of a dimer.

64
Q

What is autophosphorylation and how does it occur in cytokine receptor signaling?

A

Autophosphorylation occurs when the kinase domains of the receptor dimer become activated and phosphorylate specific tyrosine residues on the receptor itself. These phosphorylated tyrosine residues then serve as docking sites for other proteins, known as intracellular effectors, which can bind to the receptor and initiate downstream signaling events.

65
Q

What are intracellular effectors in cytokine receptor signaling?

A

Intracellular effectors are proteins that bind to phosphorylated tyrosine residues on the receptor and initiate downstream signaling events.

66
Q

What is the importance of downstream signaling pathways in cytokine receptor signaling?

A

Downstream signaling pathways initiated by cytokine receptor signaling can regulate various cellular responses, such as proliferation, differentiation, and survival.

67
Q

What are some diseases that can result from dysregulation of cytokine receptor signaling?

A

Dysregulation of cytokine receptor signaling can lead to various diseases, such as autoimmune disorders, inflammatory disorders, and cancer.

68
Q

How is the formation of the dimer in cytokine receptor signaling regulated?

A

The formation of the dimer in cytokine receptor signaling is regulated by the concentration of the ligand and the receptor on the cell surface.

69
Q

What are some examples of cytokine receptors?

A

Examples of cytokine receptors include the growth hormone receptor, the interleukin-2 receptor, and the tumor necrosis factor receptor.

70
Q

What are FGFs and how do they signal?

A

FGFs are a family of growth factors that signal through fibroblast growth receptors (FGFRs) and activate a variety of downstream signaling pathways.

71
Q

What is the downstream signaling pathway activated by FGF signaling?

A

One downstream signaling pathway activated by FGF signaling involves the production of calcium as a second messenger.

72
Q

What is the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway and how is it activated in FGF signaling?

A

The MAPK pathway is a downstream signaling pathway activated by FGF signaling, which includes the RAF-MEK-MAPK/ERK signaling cascade. FGFR activation leads to the recruitment and activation of the protein kinase RAF, which then activates the downstream kinases MEK and MAPK/ERK.

73
Q

What is hepatic inflammation?

A

Hepatic inflammation refers to the inflammation of the liver, which can lead to liver damage and dysfunction, and if left untreated, can progress to more severe conditions such as liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma.

74
Q

What cells are involved in the inflammatory response in the liver?

A

The inflammatory response in the liver is primarily mediated by immune cells such as macrophages, neutrophils, and lymphocytes.

75
Q

What are some pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines involved in hepatic inflammation?

A

Some pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines involved in hepatic inflammation include TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6.

76
Q

What are damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and how do they contribute to hepatic inflammation?

A

DAMPs are molecules released by damaged cells that can stimulate the immune response and exacerbate the inflammation in the liver.

77
Q

What signaling pathways are activated in hepatic inflammation?

A

The inflammation can activate various signaling pathways involved in cell proliferation and survival, such as the NF-κB and MAPK pathways.

Physiology (14 decks)

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