Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Physiology > Molecular Techniques > Flashcards

Molecular Techniques Flashcards

1
Q

What is molecular diagnostics?

A

Molecular diagnostics is a set of techniques that apply molecular biology to medical testing, specifically the analysis of biological markers in the genome and proteome.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What is the Hemagglutination Inhibition Test, and how does it work?

A

The Hemagglutination Inhibition Test is a serological test that measures the prevention of aggregation of red blood cells caused by a virus’s hemagglutinin molecules, which is inhibited by specific antiviral antibodies present in a patient’s serum sample.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

What is ELISA, and how is it used in COVID-19 testing?

A

ELISA is an immunoassay technique used to detect antibodies or antigens in a sample. In COVID-19 testing, ELISA is used to detect the presence of antibodies against the SARS-CoV-2 virus in a patient’s serum sample.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative ELISA analysis?

A

Qualitative ELISA analysis determines whether a specific antigen or antibody is present in a sample, while quantitative analysis determines the concentration of the antigen or antibody in the sample.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What is sequencing, and how is it used in molecular biology?

A

Sequencing is a laboratory technique used to determine the precise order of nucleotides (A, C, G, and T) in a DNA molecule. It is used in molecular biology to identify genetic variants, mutations, or other features of interest.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

What is PCR, and how does it work?

A

PCR is a laboratory technique used to amplify a specific segment of DNA from a larger DNA sample. It involves denaturation, annealing, and extension steps that result in exponential amplification of the target DNA segment.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

What is a blot?

A

A Western blot is a type of blot used to detect proteins based on their size and antigenicity.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

How are proteins separated in Western blotting?

A

Proteins are separated by size using gel electrophoresis and transferred to a membrane, such as nitrocellulose or PVDF.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

What is a primary antibody in Western blotting?

A

A primary antibody is an antibody that recognizes the target protein of interest in a Western blot.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What is a secondary antibody in Western blotting?

A

A secondary antibody is an antibody conjugated with an enzyme that binds to the primary antibody in a Western blot.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

What is phosphorylation?

A

Phosphorylation is a post-translational modification that can regulate protein activity, localization, and degradation.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

How can Western blots be used to detect changes in phosphorylation status?

A

By using a specific antibody that recognizes a phosphorylated form of the protein of interest, Western blots can be used to detect changes in phosphorylation status and investigate the functional consequences of these changes.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

What is histology?

A

Histology is the study of the microscopic structure of tissues and organs, and involves the use of dyes or stains to highlight specific cellular or tissue components.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

What is immuno-fluorescence?

A

Immuno-fluorescence is a technique that uses fluorescent dyes or tags to label specific proteins or other molecules within a tissue sample.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

What is a karyotype?

A

A karyotype is a visual representation of the chromosomes in a cell; it shows the number, size, and shape of the chromosomes, and can be used to detect chromosomal abnormalities.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

What is a karyotype?

A

A karyotype is a visual representation of the chromosomes in a cell; it shows the number, size, and shape of the chromosomes, and can be used to detect chromosomal abnormalities.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

What is the COVID-19 PCR test?

A

The COVID-19 PCR test is a laboratory technique used to detect the presence of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

What is the method used in the COVID-19 PCR test?

A

The test uses a method called reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) to detect small amounts of viral RNA in a sample.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

What are the three segments of the viral genome detected in the COVID-19 PCR test?

A

The three segments are Segment A, which codes for NS1, Segment B1, which codes for NS2a, and Segment B2, which codes for NS2b.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

What is the purpose of the negative control in the COVID-19 PCR test?

A

The negative control is used to detect any signals arising from contamination of the PCR instrument or reagents.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

What is the purpose of the positive control in the COVID-19 PCR test?

A

The positive control is used to ensure that the PCR kit is functioning properly.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

What is self-tolerance?

A

Self-tolerance refers to the ability of the immune system to differentiate between self-antigens and foreign antigens.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

What is central tolerance?

A

Central tolerance refers to the elimination of self-reactive T cells and B cells in the central lymphoid organs, such as the thymus and bone marrow.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

What are regulatory T cells?

A

Regulatory T cells are a type of T cell that can suppress the activation of other immune cells and help maintain tolerance to self-antigens.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

What are some factors that contribute to the development of autoimmune disorders?

A

Genetic predisposition, environmental factors, and sex and hormonal factors may contribute to the development of autoimmune disorders.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

What is rheumatoid arthritis?

A

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by persistent inflammation in the synovial tissue that lines the joints.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

How does the immune system contribute to rheumatoid arthritis?

A

The immune system attacks the synovial tissue, causing inflammation, joint damage, and deformity.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

What are the long-term complications associated with rheumatoid arthritis?

A

The inflammation in RA can lead to damage and erosion of cartilage, bone, and other joint structures, causing pain, stiffness, and reduced mobility in affected joints; RA can also affect other organs, such as the eyes, lungs, and blood vessels.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

What factors contribute to the development of rheumatoid arthritis?

A

Rheumatoid arthritis is believed to be caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors, and people with a family history of RA are more likely to develop the condition.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

What is systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)?

A

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic autoimmune disease that can affect any part of the body; it is characterized by flares, spontaneous remission, and relapses.

30
Q

What are the factors that contribute to the development of SLE?

A

SLE is believed to be due to a combination of genetic, environmental, and epigenetic factors, such as infections and exposure to ultraviolet light.

31
Q

What is the role of the adaptive immune system in SLE?

A

In SLE, the adaptive immune system recognizes nuclear components as foreign and initiates an immune response, leading to the formation of autoantibodies directed against nuclear components and the formation of immune complexes that can deposit in various tissues, leading to inflammation and damage.

32
Q

What is the role of the innate immune system in SLE?

A

The innate immune system, including plasmacytoid dendritic cells, neutrophils, and macrophages, plays a critical role in the development of SLE by producing excessive IFNs, forming immune complexes, and activating the adaptive immune response.

33
Q

What is the treatment for rheumatoid arthritis?

A

Treatment for RA includes medications to reduce inflammation and pain, as well as lifestyle modifications such as exercise and dietary changes; in severe cases, joint replacement surgery may be necessary to restore function and reduce pain.

34
Q

What is the treatment for systemic lupus erythematosus?

A

Treatment typically involves a combination of immunosuppressive drugs, anti-inflammatory medications, and lifestyle modifications to manage symptoms and prevent flares.

35
Q

What does HIV stand for, and what does it do to the immune system?

A

HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Once the virus enters the body, it attacks and weakens the immune system by infecting CD4+ T cells.

36
Q

What is the normal range of CD4+ cells in the blood, and what happens when the CD4+ count drops below 200 cells/mm3?

A

The normal range of CD4+ cells in the blood is between 500 and 1600 cells/mm3. A CD4+ count of less than 200 cells/mm3 is a marker for the progression of HIV to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).

37
Q

What is antiretroviral therapy (ART), and how does it help people living with HIV?

A

Antiretroviral therapy (ART) can slow down the replication of the virus and help prevent further damage to the immune system, allowing people living with HIV to live longer, healthier lives.

38
Q

What are the different classes of antiretroviral drugs?

A

The different classes of antiretroviral drugs include nucleoside and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, protease inhibitors, fusion inhibitors, CCR5 antagonists, and integrase inhibitors.

39
Q

What is the HIV life cycle, and how does the virus replicate and spread throughout the body?

A

The HIV life cycle involves nine steps, including attachment, fusion, reverse transcription, integration, transcription, assembly, budding, maturation, and release. Once the virus is released from the host cell, it can infect other cells and continue to replicate, leading to the spread of the virus throughout the body.

40
Q

What are some of the effects of HIV on gut mucosa?

A

Some of the effects of HIV on gut mucosa include CD4+ T-cell depletion, intestinal barrier dysfunction, chronic inflammation, and alterations in gut microbiota.

41
Q

What is HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND), and how does HIV affect the brain?

A

HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND) is a condition in which people living with HIV experience a range of cognitive problems. HIV can enter the brain by infecting white blood cells called monocytes, and can infect other brain cells, including neurons, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and astrocytes, leading to cognitive problems.

42
Q

How does HIV use a “Trojan Horse” strategy to enter the brain?

A

HIV uses a “Trojan Horse” strategy by infecting white blood cells called monocytes, which can then cross the blood-brain barrier and transform into macrophages, a type of immune cell that resides in the brain.

43
Q

How does HIV infection affect oligodendrocytes, and why is this significant?

A

Oligodendrocytes are cells that produce myelin, the fatty substance that insulates neurons and allows them to communicate more efficiently. When oligodendrocytes become infected with HIV, they can die, which can disrupt communication between neurons and lead to cognitive problems.

44
Q

What role do microglia and astrocytes play in HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND)?

A

Microglia are the brain’s resident immune cells, and they play an important role in defending against infections and maintaining brain health. When they are infected with HIV, they can become overactivated and produce inflammatory molecules that can damage neurons and other brain cells. Similarly, astrocytes provide support and nourishment to neurons, and when they are infected, they can also become overactivated and produce inflammatory molecules that can contribute to brain damage.

45
Q

What is tuberculosis (TB)?

A

TB is an infectious disease caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb); it most commonly affects the lungs.

46
Q

How is TB spread?

A

TB is spread through the air when a person with TB disease coughs, sneezes, speaks, or sings, which releases airborne particles containing M. tuberculosis.

47
Q

Can everyone who is exposed to TB become sick with TB disease?

A

No, not everyone who is exposed to TB becomes sick with TB disease; some people have latent TB infection, which means they have been infected with M. tuberculosis but do not have active TB disease.

48
Q

What is the risk of developing TB disease for people with latent TB infection?

A

About 10% of people with latent TB infection will develop TB disease at some point in their lives; the risk is higher for people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV or those who smoke.

49
Q

What are some symptoms of TB disease?

A

Some symptoms of TB disease include cough, fever, night sweats, and weight loss.

50
Q

How is TB treated?

A

TB can be treated with antibiotics for several months; people with latent TB infection may also be treated with antibiotics to prevent the development of TB disease.

51
Q

What is the first step in the development of TB?

A

The first step in the development of TB is the inhalation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MT) into the lungs.

52
Q

What are TB granulomas?

A

TB granulomas are structures formed by the immune system in response to MT infection.

53
Q

How does the structure of TB granulomas affect the ability of the immune system to control MT infection?

A

The structure of TB granulomas can either promote the killing of MT or protect the bacteria from the immune system, which can determine whether a person develops active TB disease or latent TB infection.

54
Q

What are some cellular processes targeted by TB drugs?

A

TB drugs can target cell wall synthesis, energy metabolism, replication and transcription, folic acid metabolism, and translation.

55
Q

What are some examples of cellular processes involved in the molecular regulation of inflammation in TB?

A

Cell death patterns, inflammatory networks, and tissue remodeling are involved in the molecular regulation of inflammation in TB.

56
Q

What is neuroinflammation?

A

Neuroinflammation is the brain’s natural response to injury, infection, or disease, and it involves the activation of glial cells, particularly microglia, which are the primary immune cells in the CNS.

57
Q

What is the balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory responses crucial in determining the outcome of neuroinflammation?

A

The balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory responses is crucial in determining the outcome of neuroinflammation; an imbalance can lead to excessive inflammation and tissue damage, or impaired tissue repair and susceptibility to infections.

58
Q

What is traumatic brain injury (TBI)?

A

TBI is a type of brain dysfunction caused by an external blow to the head.

59
Q

What is the role of microglia in response to TBI?

A

Microglia are responsible for detecting and responding to neuronal injuries and infections in the brain after TBI.

60
Q

What is Alzheimer’s disease (AD)?

A

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common type of age-related dementia; it is a progressive disease that affects brain areas associated with thought, speech, and memory.

61
Q

What is the hallmark of alzheimer’s disease?

A

The hallmark of AD is the accumulation of abnormal protein deposits in the brain called amyloid plaques.

62
Q

What are some symptoms of alzheimer’s disease?

A

Symptoms of AD can include memory loss, difficulty with language and communication, mood swings, and changes in personality and behaviour.

63
Q

What is autophagy and how does it become defective in AD and aging?

A

Autophagy is a process by which cells remove damaged or unnecessary components. In AD and aging, autophagy becomes defective, leading to the accumulation of damaged proteins and organelles that can trigger inflammation in the brain.

64
Q

What is oxi-inflammation and how does it contribute to neuroinflammation in AD and aging?

A

Oxi-inflammation refers to the combination of oxidative stress and inflammation, which can occur in response to various stressors, including mitochondrial dysfunction and defective autophagy. Oxi-inflammation is thought to contribute to the development and progression of AD.

65
Q

What is the role of the gut microbiota in neuroinflammation in AD and aging?

A

Dysbiosis, or an imbalance in the gut microbiota, can lead to the production of proinflammatory molecules that can cross the blood-brain barrier and contribute to neuroinflammation in AD and aging.

66
Q

What is Parkinson’s disease and what are its symptoms?

A

Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a range of symptoms, including involuntary movements, shaking, stiffness, and difficulty with balance and coordination.

67
Q

How does neuroinflammation contribute to Parkinson’s disease?

A

In PD, neuroinflammation can occur in response to central inflammation, peripheral inflammation, aggregated alpha-synuclein, and the brain-vagus nerve-enteric nervous system axis. Activation of microglia contributes to neuroinflammation and can lead to the death of dopamine-producing neurons in the brain.

68
Q

What is major depressive disorder and how is it linked to neuroinflammation?

A

Major depressive disorder is a mental health condition characterized by persistent feelings of sadness and loss of interest in activities that were once enjoyable. Patients with MDD have been found to have alterations in the populations of microglia cells, which can become activated in response to stress and contribute to neuroinflammation.

69
Q

What is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and how does it relate to MDD?

A

The HPA axis regulates the body’s response to stress. In MDD, chronic stress can lead to dysregulation of the HPA axis, resulting in increased levels of cortisol, a stress hormone.

70
Q

What is the role of the vagus nerve and sympathetic chain in MDD?

A

The vagus nerve and sympathetic chain are part of the autonomic nervous system, which regulates involuntary bodily functions, including the stress response. Dysfunction of these pathways can contribute to dysregulation of the stress response and inflammation in MDD.

71
Q

What is corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB), and how do they relate to MDD?

A

CRH and NF-kB are two key signaling molecules that are involved in the stress response and inflammation. In MDD, dysregulation of these pathways can contribute to chronic inflammation and the development of depressive symptoms.

72
Q

How does the brain undergo structural and functional changes in response to stress and inflammation in MDD?

A

In response to stress and inflammation, the brain can undergo structural and functional changes that contribute to the development and progression of depression. Dysregulation of neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and dopamine, can contribute to changes in brain

Physiology (14 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions